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I G LIS II GRAMMAR. 

1 



WITH AN ANALYSIS, 









POSTSCRIPT 



AND AN APPENDIX. 



CQRRECTED ASD REVISED. 



SECOND EDITION. 



BY JONATHAN MORGAN, A. B, 



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: LIBRARY OF CONGRESS. 



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'{UNITED STATES OF .AMERICA. { 



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ELEMENTS 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



POSTSCRIPT ANALYSIS, 



AND Atf 



APPENDIX. 



. BY JONATHAN MORGAN, A. B. 

SECOND EDITION REVISED AND CORRECTED. 



THURSTON, ILSLEY & CO., PRINTERS, 

PORTLAND, ME.: 

1844. 



\^ 



«*.^> 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1844, 

BY JONATHAN MORGAN, A. B., 

In the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the District of Maine. 



n 



PREFACE TO THE SECOND EDITION. 



In publishing my first edition, in 1814) I did not do it, because any want of Grammars then ex- 
isted, such as they were, but because a want of system then was, whereby to solve all the proper 
forms of speech, in our language, and reduce the whole to a regular and plain set of rules. That 
edition, from the hasty manner of its compilation, I found to partake so largely of the errors, then 
prevalent, in the systems, then in use, that I gave it up, without geting it into use. Since that 
time, I have been leisurely at work, in endeavoring to understand the language better, and to cor- 
rect all the prevailing errors. By consulting Took, and other eminent writers, and carefully ex- 
amining the language, in all my various readings, I am satisfied that I have attained the true sys- 
tem of the English, as it is now spoken and written, by the people, and have reduced the whole to 
a perfect system, within itself, independent of any spoken, or written language. 

In these inquiries, I have fully satisfied myself, and on a careful and candid examination of the 
work, I believe that others will also be satisfied that the true system of English, as now settled 
and used, by the people, is as perfect, within itself, as any language, that ever has been, or now is 
spoken. It having, from long use and practice, acquired a settled character and form, and one 
which probably never will change again, especially in the United States of America, it has ap- 
peared proper and necessary, to me, that these forms should be explained and systemized, for the 
use of all classes, speaking and using the language. 

The English is now fast assuming an importance, that no other ever has, nor ever will assume. 
It is now the settled language of all North America, north of Mexico, and South of the Russian 
possessions at 55 degrees north, of Great Britain, Ireland, a part of the West Indies, and the Is- 
land of New Holland. It will also be the spoken language, mixed, or unmixed, by Southern Afri- 
ca, a part of Western Africa, and over a very extensive territory, in the East Indies. These 
countries embrace such an extent of territory, and will eventually comprise such a population, 
that it must, more than any other, in time? become the language of travellers. 

The parts of the language mostly needing correction, are the verbs, in their various classifica- 
tions. One great hinderance, in systemizing our language, has been the constant attempt to force 
upon it a Subjunctive mood, no such mood having been formed and adopted by the people. Con- 
sequently wrong expositions were constantly given, and wrong rules applied. The language, un- 
der such treatment, shared the common fate of abuse and error. 

This error naturally led to another, the misunderstanding of the Potential. For, supposing that 
we had a Subjunctive, hypothetic speech was constantly used and explained, in that supposed 
mood, no such existin-g. From this error arose another, that of neglecting the Potential mood 
which is all the hypothetical mood, which we have, or need. The errors attending the Potentiaj 
mood have been the use and application of the imperfect and pluperfect tenses of the Indicative 
to tb is mood, where the acts and circumstances of the verb, in these two tenses, had no analogy 
to the acts and circumstances of the verb, in those two tenses, in the Indicative. 

It became apparrent that a reformation must be made of those errors. From a careful examina- 
tion of the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, in the potential, 1 found that both of these tenses, in- 
stead of being absolute and positive, as in the indicative, were both hypothetical and indefinit e 
and that their associations were entirely different, from their associations, in the Indicative. 

I, therefore, dismissed the imperfect and pluperfect tenses, r rom the Potential, and substituted 
in their places, the first and second indefinites. See those tenses, as explained. The use and ap- 
plication of these tenses, at once, relieve the Potential mode from ail embarrasment, doubt and 
difficulty, and makes this mood, which has given so much thouble to teachers and learners, per- 
fectly clear and intelligible. 

The nouns needed but little improvement, simply the addition in form, of a second declention, 
which the nouns, from established use, have assumed and from which,, they will never depart, 
whether teachers adopt, acknowledge and use that form, or not. The other improvements, which 



iv PREFACE. 

seem to be necessary, in the Etymology, were the definitions of the several classes of speech, theii 
origin, and the explanation of their original terras. 

The Syntax, also, required a corresponding correction, and I have added such rules, to the old 
stock, as appeared to me to be necessary and proper to complete this branch of the English 
system. The great want, in all the publications on English Grammmar, has been a want of a full 
and proper system of the verbs. It seems to have been the constant aim of all our ablest men, 
who have written upon the subject, to break the verbs down into the three tenses ; the past, pres- 
ent and future, throwing all the other forms of tenses, into the participles, and adjectives. And 
some have even discarded the participles, and flung them all into the class of adjectives. And 
some have allowed only the Indicative, Imperative and Infinitive moods. 

But the language has assumed.a different, more enlarged and elegant form. That is, the com- 
mon people have had and felt a more refined taste, in the use of their language, than the literati 
have manifested, and the people would not give it up, nor alter it. And so the contest has 
been maintained. 

We might give up all the improvement of our languge, if we would, and go back to the first 
stage of society, and use only nouns and verbs. We might also give up all other improvements 
and refinements, and go back to a state of simple nature, live in huts and clothe in sknis. We 
might do without horses and carriages, rail-roads, steamboats, houses, and various articles of 
dress, and perhaps be more rebust and hedthy. But the fact is, people never did and never will 
voluntarily give up any improvement, after becoming accustomed to it. 

We should consider, on this subject, the present form of our language, in attempting to alter it 
by introducing a new mood, that we have to contend with women and children. See interjections 
and remark there. They are mostly the framers and makers of language, being more given to 
talk, than men, they unquestionably give the great leading forms and features to language, which 
men cultivate, improve and beautify. 

Some very eminent men have contended that we have no cases to our nouns, or but one, the 
nominative. But this notion, as also the notion above noticed, of the moods and tenses of the 
verbs, has not acquired a general acknowledgment. These notions have probably grown out of 
another equally wrong, that the language w r as so heterogeneous and unsettled, that it could not be 
reduced to a perfect system, within itself. These errors have withheld those improvements, 
which it deserved, and of which it has been so capable. It has also induced our own literati, to 
turn that nice and classic attention, of which their own tongue has been so richly deserving, to 
others more refined and cultivated. The consequence has been that our pure, good, old mother 
English has been, like a bastard child, turned into the streets to famish and shiver in the cold, 
while foreign tongues have been introduced to the luxuries and warm comforts of our parlors, to 
the shame and disgrace of the English nations. No wonder that foreigners call it a gibberish and 
beggarly English. And this foul disgrace will continue to overshadow our language, so long 
as our literati shall refuse to adopt, in form, what the common people have, long since, adopted in 
practice.. For it would be as useless to undertake to alter the common and natural laws of mat- 
ter, as to alter the settled and uniform language of a nation, except by conquest, and the introduc- 
tion of a new tongue, by an overwhelming military power. 

I have .hoped that the English literati, on seeing the beauties and conveniences of our language 
ully exemplified and explained, will give up old errors, to which they have, so long, through neg- 
igence, adhered, and turn their attention, from foreign tongues, which are of no use, except as 
matters of curiosity, and bestow it upon their own', which is the only one of any intrinsic value to 
them and the English nations. Foreign languages are mere curiosities, to' us, ours, the same im- 
portance, as our comforts, property, liberty and lives. It is no wonder that foreigners have- so 
uniformly dispised our language, seeing that we have treated it with such sovereign contempt, in 
refusing to learn and systemize it ourselves. 

After a labor of about thirty-five years, I feel fully satisfied that I have reduced the English 
Language to as perfect a system, within itself, on its own idiom, and without any reference to any 
foreign tongue, except in points, wherein they naturally coincide, as -ny language, that ever has 
been, or now is spoken by any nation whatever. I therefore hope that the English literati will 
give up their prejudices against their own tongue, and use it, as the people have settled it, in their 
daily use and conversation. 

" Scarcely an idea prevailed among English scholars, that their language had an origin and char- 
acter of its own. It is only by an attention to the elementary'structure'of our own language, on 
scientific principles, that rational improvement can be expected. A -train of circumstances has 
led to a general system of fal?e teaching in England and America. It is a short time since all the 
learned works in Europe, were written in Greek, or Latin. These tongues ceasing to be any 
where spoken were emphatically caH© J the learned languages, and what they called the vulgar 



PREFACE. v 

tongue was made an object of absolute contempt. However excellent the literature of Greece 
and Rome may be, it was great pedantry? in the English Colleges, in attempting to graft the origi 
nal branches of our language upon these foreign stocks. A strange ignorance exists both in England 
and America, of the real fountains of our native speech. All that has been done in exploring their 
sources, has been done by a few unaided individuals. The necessary consequence has been that 
good English has always been sacrificed to bad Greek and Latin. And all attempts to explain our 
mother tongue, have been by arbitrary and partial analogies, from foreign languages, with which i 
has but a remote affinity. The English tongue is, in its original structure, one of the easiest 
in the world, to learn and follow ; but made one of the most difficult, by the errors of false prac- 
tice. 

" On the subject of reducing English to a regular and perfect system, the most opposite opin- 
ions have and do prevail. One says it is already fixed and can admit no change. Another, that it 
needs and is capable of reform. Another opinion is that a living language can neither be arrested 
nor guided in its course. I would ask, were the Greek and Latin languages, reduced to the per- 
fect forms of grace, ease and beauty, by the people who spoke and wrote the languages, or by the 
barbarians who broke them down and mutilated them with their own vulgar and uncooth tongues, 
as they did also the fine arts of those nations ? 

" One of the first ideas presented, in relation to the United States, is the peculiar situation, in 
which we are placed respecting ourselves and all other nations. For we have no account of any 
other nation, the prime object of whose government was, or is to diffuse instruction among the 
whole body of the people. The attempt was never before made, on a national plan, to produce 
unitormity among all classes of the people, in the speaking and writing of a national language 
Both of these objects are of prime importance, in the United States. 

" All that concerns our public happiness, our union and peace within ourselves ; all which 
tends to develope our resources, improve and perpetuate our institutions : all which may give us 
wealth, strength and glory, among the nations, depends on tne general course of instruction ; that 
instruction, in a great degree, on the goodness, purity, and uniformity of our national language, 
which is the common instrument and medium of intercommunication among us all. Our popula- 
tion has increased, from 2,500,009, to about 17,000,000, in about 66 years, and still progressing at 
the same rapid rate, which is beyond all parellel. 

" Our course of moral and physical progress is greater than that of our numbers. This impulse 
extending, not only to ourselves, but to the civilized world, must take its direction, from the gen 
eral literature of our country, connected to a greater extent, than most people are aware, with the_ 
degree of cultivation given to our speech. The principles of language, therefore, necessarily 
blend themselves, with our prime interests, as a nation ; and to those who are prepared to enter 
on this investigation, it is a source of unceasing admiration, that while the great, leading rules of 
speech, in the English language, are few and simple ; the minor variations are endless. 

" The relative changes of words connected with the workings of that, adopt themselves to every 
imaginable form of utterance, and run into each other, by such gradations, as are hardly obvious 
to the keenest observations of critical philosophy. Instead of considering the study of language, 
as a mere task of the schools, reason is to believe that a better understanding of its elements and 
beauties will lead to great improvements, in mental and physical researches. 

" The structure of speech, as exhibited, in the different conditions of society, is an exhaustless 
store of practical facts and principles, which go far beyond all abstract reasoning, in teaching to 
man the great lesson, know thou thyself." — CardelVs Essay. 

An eminent English writer observes, " that as any branch of learning tends to important and use- 
ful results, gains ground, in public estimation, and tends to overthrow prevailing errors, it may be 
expected to call forth angry denunciations, from those, who dispise what they will not learn, an^ 
are wedded to prejudices, which they cannot defend." 

In parsing language, it is not the mere giving of names to words, which is intended. The objec* 
is much higher, and more at ientific. It is to arrange the words of a sentence, under their proper 
classes, by understanding the true meaning. And this will always show to what^class the words 
belong, without any possibility of mistake. When this course shall be properly pursued, .the 
scholar will have a clear understanding of the language, and a true application ;of the parts Of 
speech. If he will follow carefully the rules laid down, under each class of speech, he will never 
err, in the application of the different words to their proper classes, for the rules there given, by 
which to designate, are all certain and never fail. 

This method, if properly pursued, will relieve the teacher and scholar from the practice, which 
has too much been in use, of making the adverb class a lumberhole, wherein to throw all words' 
not readily and distinctly understood. No wonder the study of English has hitherto been so un. 
inviting a science ; because the prevailing opinion has been that the language, in itself, has been 



vi PREFACE. 

and is altogether irregular and not reducable, to system, and to regular and certain rules, and it 
never can be taught either with pleasure nor understanding, so long as this opinion shall prevail. 
The like fatality would befall any science, under like circumstances. 

Let it be taught purely and understood clearly, and it will become a pleasing, profitable and ad_ 
mired branch of the sciences, and would at once, be relieved from the degrading appellation of 
beggarly English. With these few remarks, I submit the work to the candid examination of the 
public, and criticism of the learned, not doubling that they will treat it with impartial candor and 
do it justice. 

Portland, 1844. JONATHAN MORGAN. 



ENGLISH GBAMMAE. 



English Grammar (a) is the tot of speaking and writing the 
English language with propriety. 

v .,-, • i • „a +,.^™ fiiA n-rppk word Gramma, a letter, and 

fa) Grammar is derived trom the ixreeK wuiu , 

tied rules of speech. 

It is divided into four parts : Orthography, Etymology, 
Syntax and Prosody. 

PART I. 

* OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Orthography teaches the art of correct Sp&IWp tfi *t£>, «*»^ 

per arrangement of letters into syllables and syllables into words, 
and their nature and powers. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF THE LETTERS. 
§ 1. Of the nature of the letters and a perfect alphabet. 
A letter is the first principle, or least part of a word. 
THE ALPHABET, (b) 

The Eno-lish Alphabet has twenty-six letters. 

rt) Ow word alphabet is derived from two Greek words, alpha beta, 
i e./a and b, the two first letters in order in the Grecian alphabet. It ..g- 
nifieth the whole order of the letters, in any language. 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Roman. Italic. 

Cap. Small. 



Cap, 


Small. 


A 


a 


B 


b 


C 


c 


D 


d 


E 


e 


F 


f 


G 
H 


g 
it 


I 


i 


J 

K 


i 

k 


L 


1 


M 


m 


N 


n 


O 





P 

Q 
R 


P 
<3 
r 


s 


s 


T 


t 


U 


u 


V 


V 


w 


w 


X 


X 


Y 
Z 


y 

z 



A 


a 


B 


b 


C 


c 


D 


d 


E 


e 


F 
G 
H 


f 

g 
h 


I 


i 


J 
K 


i 


L 


i 


M 


m 


M 


n- 





o 


P 
R 


V 

q 

r 


S 


s 


T 


t 


U 


u 


V 


V 


W 


w 


X 


X 


Y 
Z 


y 

z 



IS perfect alphabet cannot be had in any language. That would require 
a inct character for each distinct articulate sound. This would render 
the number so great, that the memery could not retain them, which alone 
would defeat the whole purpose and design. We must be content, there- 
fore, with these arbitrary characters, which we have, however imperfect, 
and learn to supply that defect, by skill and practice. 

These letters are principally divisible into two kinds, vowels 
and consonants. 

A vowel (c) is a simple articulate sound, formed by opening the 
mouth, in a particular manner, and made by a single impulse of 
the voice. 

(c) A vowel is derived from the Latin word vox, from which is derived 
the English word, voice, also. 

The vowels are seven: a, e, i 9 o, m, w, ?/, 

The vowels are divided into pure, impure and mixed. 

The pure vowels are, a, e, i, o, u. 

Note. They are called pure, because they never change their vowel for 
a consonant sound. I have put i among the pure vowels, because custom 
has not decided, as yet, whether it be pure or impure. Some give it the 
sound of y, in certain cases : as, Spaniard, Indian, valiant, &c. Others 
hold it to be a pure vowel, forming a distinct syllable, in all such words. 
The mutilation of i into y is evidently a corruption of the pure pronuncia- 
tion of this vowel, and an error which ought to be corrected. See let- 
ter C. 

The impure vowels are, w fy y 



Old I 


English. 




Cap. 


Small. 


Name. 


& 


a 


1 1 
a 


33 


b 




® 


c 


ce 


B 


n 


de 


23 


z 


e 


S 


i 


f 


<& 


S 


ge, or je 


m 


ft 


ah, or aitch 


£ 


i 


i 


3 


J 


ja, or jay 


331 


ft 


ka, or kay 


% 


I 


el, or ell 


m 


m 


em 


-N 


n 


en 


<£ 





o 


33 


J> 


pe 


* <&, 


* 


cu, ku 


ft 


t 


ar 


£> 


% 


es 


& 


t 


te 


m 


u 


u, you 


V 


b 


ve 


m 


to 


double u, or we 


X 


% 


ex ! efcs 


¥ 


2 


y> wy, or ye 


% 


f 


ze, or zed 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 9 

They are called impure because they are sometimes consonants. Liter- 
ally speakng, they are not vowels ; for to, when a vowel, sounds u simple ; 
and 7/, e or i, simple. See them treated in their order. But another rea- 
son may be given for calling the simple vowels pure, because they form all 
the simple vowel sounds. And distinguished, in this way, they will always 
remain pure. 

From the five pure vowels we derive eleven simple vowel sounds, as ap 
pears by the following table. 



a as heard in at 
a ate 

e r ebb 
e eel 


o as heard in not 
o note 
u but 
u bull 


i in 


u use 


i pine 





Note. Some reckon a broad, as a simple vowel sound ; but it is no more 
so than o soft, like oo is. See them treated in their order. 

The mixed vowels are divided into double and triple, or diph- 
thongs and tripthongs. (d.) 

(d) I would here notice an error, in the pronunciation of these words, 
which is becoming very common and ought to be cured. Pk is of Grecian 
origin, and should always sound f. But a modern corruption of pronun- 
ciation, is beginning to drop the A, and give the p its proper sound. 

A diphthong is the combination of two vowels, into one sound. They 
are the following: aa, ae, ai, ao, ciu, aw, ay; e«, ee, ei, eu, ew, ey ; ia, ie, 
io, iu; oa, oe, oi, oo, on, oic, oy ; ua, ue, ui, uo, uy. See these under their 
respective initial vowels. 

Diphthongs are divided into pure and impure. A pure diph- 
thong is the union of two vowels in the one sound : as oi in voice, 
oil in thou, &/C. 

An impure diphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : as ea in learn, 
eo in people, &c. 

A triphthong is the union of three vowels in one articulate 
sound. They are eau, ieu lew, uai, iwi, uea, uee, uoy. 

Triphthongs are divided into pure and impure. 
In the pure triphthongs, all the vowels unite in one articulate 
sound : as uai in quail ; uoi in quoit. 

All the pure triphthongs are preceded by q, and if preceded by another 
letter, they become impure, for they can only be sounded after q. 

An impure triphthong has but one of the vowels sounded : as 
eau in beauty. 

A modern corruption of pronunciation has .rendered some of the pure 
diphthongs impure in some words ; as ai in laid ; ou in throvgh; oi in oil. 
If public speakers and teachers would pay such attention to this part of our 
language, as to be fully sensible of their harmony and elegance, they would 
all soon be restored. Our universities and academies must begin and per- 
fect the reformation, or it will never be done. And aa was formerly two 
syllables, and ought still to be. 

A consonant is a letter, which cannot be sounded by itself, 
but must always have a vowel associated with it. (e) 

(e) It is derived from con and sono, latin, which means to sound togeth- 
er : i. e. with a vowel. 

1* 



10 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



The following table, perhaps, will give as full a representation of them, 
as can well be exhibited to the eye, which, by their different associations, 
c Miibinations and inflections, with each other and the vowels, form all the 
elementary and associated sounds in our language. 



s as heard in so, thus 



t 


too, not 


V 

w 


vail, rave 
wo, who 


y 

z 


ye, yet 

zeal, uz 


x, or ks 
ch 


exact 
church 


ng 
sh 
th 


ing, ang, ong, ung 
shut, hush 
then, then, oath 


zh 


vision. 



b as heard in bay, but 

d day, had 

f of off, for 

g x egg, go, gender 

h hot, oh 

k kite, knock 

1 lad, all 

m came, male 

n not, no 

p pin nip 

q quit 

r rot, for 



Gh and ph are omitted, because they have the sound of/. C is useless 
having always the sound of -As, or s; andj, also having no sound but g soft. 

Consonants are divided into semivowels and mutes. 

The semivowels all begin their own names with a vowel. They 
are /, h, I, m, n, r, s, x. 

These are divided into vocal and aspirate. The vocal are 
formed in the voice, and are I, m, n, r. They are also called li- 
quids, because they readily unite with the other consonants, and 
flow into their sounds after the manner of vowels (f ) - 

(f) Some writers reckon v, id, y r z, th, zh, and ng, among the vocal. In 
solving this question, it is undoubtedly a better way to pronounce the let- 
ters separately, than to combine them, with others. And I believe that 
every one will be readily convinced, on paying proper attention to the sub- 
ject, that I, m, n, r, are really vocal, i.e. formed in the voice ; and that, in 
the pronunciation of the others, the organs of speech change, from an 
open full mouthed pronunciatian, to a contraction of the organs with an 
aspiration, or breathing, in the pronunciation. See these letters treated in 
order. 

The aspirate are formed in the breath, and have a breathing, or 
hissing sound, and are the following,/, h, s, x. (g) 

(g) Perhaps x is not properly a consonant of any class, it being, in real- 
ity, a character representing the sound of ks. 

The mutes may be divided into pure and impure. 

The pure are those, whose sound cannot be at all prolonged, 
and are h, p, t. 

The impure mutes are those, whose sound may be prolonged a 
little, and are 5, c, d, g,j, q, v, w, z, ng, sh, th, zh. 

Mr. Perry divides the consonants into mutes, b, c, d, g,'h, q, t ; aspirate 
h; sibilant c, s, z ; liquids I, m, n, r. He subdivides them again into labial, 
dental, palatine, and nasal, i. e. as formed by the lips, teeth, palate, and nose. 

It seems unnecessary to noti6e the gutturals, as those sounds are entirely 
lost in the American pronunciation. 

§ 2. Of the Sounds of the Letters. 

A has four sounds : 1, long as in day, name; 2, short, as in bat, fan ; 3, 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 11 

broad, or the sound of au diphthong, as in all, icall a want ; 4, flat, or the 
sound of broad a short, like a short, as in what. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

1. Aa as in Balaam, Canaan, Isaac. (/*) 

(h) This is undoubtedly a corruption in the pronunciation of such words, 
for the old people at present make them simple vowels, thus Ba-la-am, Ca- 
na-an, Isa-ac. This is evident also from inspection, for in changing aa into 
an impure diphthong we make the syllable short. 

2. Ae diphthong sounds e long : as in (Enigma, (Equator, Coesar. This 
orthography is derived from the latin language. Late writers generally 
omit the a, and retain the e, as enigma, equator, Cesar. 

3. At has two sounds: 1, its pure diphthongal sound, as in ai ; 2, of a 
long, as in gain, sail. 

4. Ao has one sound that of o long as in gaoU 

5. Au has one sound : as in laurel, -applause, aunt, flaunt. 

6 Aw is nothing more, in pronunciation, than au, as in law, saw, flaw. 

7. Ay has two sounds: 4j the sound of ai, in the interjection ay. 2, The 
sound of a long, as in lay, day. In compound words the y is generally 
ehanged into i, as daily ; but not always, as in playful. But when the 
composition makes it a participle, the y is retained. 

B has one unvaried sound, at the beginning, middle and end of words, 
as in bonny, husband, herb. It is sometimes silent, as' in thumb, debtor, 
bdellium. In some words it has the effect of e final, in lengthening or 
softening a preceding vowel, as in climb, comb, tomb. 

C has three sounds' 1, hard like k before a, o, u, I and r, as in cane, 
cone, cut, clay, crazy. 2, Soft like s, before e, i, and y : as in cent, city, 
cymbal. 3, The sound of sh, before ea, and ia, in some words, as in ocean, 
social. Making ea, and ia impure diphthongs, in such words, is a very 
modern pronunciation. The old pure pronunciation makes those vowels, 
in all such terminations, distinct syllables, as O-ce-an, so-ci-al. (b) 

C before z, at the beginning of words, is silent. As in Czar, Czarina. 
(b) Also before t, followed by u silent, as in victuals, pronounced vitals. 

C hard is used at the end of words of more than one syllable, ending with 
the sound of k. In words of one syllable, some use ch, and some i only* 
The k is sufficient. 

Ch has four sounds : 1, Natural, as in chin, chaff, charter. 2, Oft com- 
bined with ch natural, as in birch, church. 3, Hard like k as in Archi- 
peligo, archives, archangel. 4, Soft like sh, in words derived from the 
French, as in chaise chevalier, machine. It is silent in some words, as 
in yacht. 

This rule will generally hold true, that ch in words of Grecian origin is 
hard; in those of French origin, soft; and in pure English words, natural. 

C is altogether supurfluous being always k, or s, in sound; and so is ch, 
being always k, or sh, in sound. 

D has two sounds : its own sound at the beginning, middle, and end of 
words, as in death, kindred. 2, That of g soft, as in Indian. Between 
two Is it is silent, as in worldling. 

Some speakers, of late, mutillate the sound of di into j, as midium into 
mijum, audience, aujence. 

These words are of latin origin and it is contrary to the idiom of that 
and our language to so mutilate these letters, and no speaker will ever do 
it, who has any regard for, or pride in his own pure, mother English. 

The old pure English word soger, by the influence! of the Norman 
French, has been changed to soldier in spelling, but the old pronunciation, 
to the great credit of the English people has been retained, and it is now 
universally pronounced soger, or solgier. The Scotch still write and pro 
bounce soger 



12 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

E has five sounds: 1, long, as in scheme, glebe, severe. 2, Short, as in 
men, bed, pen. 3, Of u short, as in her, sergeant. 4, Of a long, as in 
where, there. 5, Of i, consonant, as in righteous. 

E is always silent at the end of words, except in monosyllables having 
noother vowel ; as me, he, &c ; or words derived from the Greek and Lat- 
in. As catastrophe, epitome, Penelope. It is used to soften a preceding 
consonant, as force, rage; or to lengthen a preceding vowel, as, cane, 
pine, robe. And this silent e, at the end of words is what we call e final. 

E final should be suppressed, in compound words: as observation, abat- 
ment, &c. And in the adverbs it would be a neatness, as wheras, thcr- 
fore, herin, <£c. 

DlPTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

1. Ea has five sounds: 1, of e long, as in tear, fear. 2, Of e short, as 
in breath, feather 3, Of a long, as in pear, tear. 4, Of a short, as in 
heart. 5, Of u short, as in earth, learn. 

2. Eau has two sounds : 1, Of o long, as in beau, -portmanteau. 2, Of 
u long, as in beauty, (i) 

(i) This impure triphgthong I believe is altogether of French origin. 

3. Ee has but one sound, that of e long, as in eel, meet, see. 

4. Ei has five sounds : 1 , Of ft long,' as in reign, neighboiir. 2, Of a 
short, as in sovreign, foreign 3, Of e long, as in seize, either. 4, Of i 
short as in forfeit. 5, Of e short, as in heifer. 

5. Eo has three sounds : 1, Of e short, as in feoff, leopard. 2, Of e 
long, as in people. 3, Of u short, as in surgeon, sturgeon. 

6. Eu has but one sound, that of u long, as Infued, Eunice. 

7. Ew is the same in sonnd as eu: as in new, few. 

8. Ey has four sounds; 1, Of a long, as in Prey. 2, Of e long, as in 
key. 3, Of e short, as in (j) valley. 4, Of i long, as in eye. 

(j) Mr, Perry calls this the shorthand I believe that is the English 
pronunciation ; but in America it is generally pronounced e short. 

9. Eye has but one sound, that of i long, as in eye the organ of sight. 

F has two sounds : 1, its own sound at the beginning, middle, and end 
of words, as in fat, stiff. 2, Of v, as in of. Some give / its natural 
sound in of 

G has two sounds : 1, hard before a, o, u, I, r : as in game, go, glue, gray 
2, soft in some words before e, i, y : as in gender, giant, Egypt. In some 
words it is hard before c, i, y, as in get, gimblet, gyration. Scholars must 
learn these distinctions, by experience and attention* At the end of words 
it is always hard, as in lag, leg, big, bog, bug. 

Gh has two sounds : 1, of g hard, as in ghost, ghastly. 2, Of/, at the 
end of syllables and words, in some words : as in tough, rough, laugh, 
toughness, roughness, laughter. At the end of some words it has its first 
sound, as in burgh; in others it is silent, as in through, borough^ nigh, 
sigh. When silent, it seems to have the effect of e final, in lengthening 
the preceding vowel. 

Gn has but one sound, that of n : as in gnostic, gnash, sign, resign. G 
before n at the beginning of words seems to have no office. At the end of 
words it seems to have the office of e final in lengthening the preceding 
vowel. 

Ght has two sounds : 1, Of ch natural, as righteous. 2, Of t simple, gh 
being silent : as in slight, might. The gh, in such words, tho* silent, has 
She office of e final in lengthening the preceding vowel. 

H has two sounds : I, a strong full sould at the beginning of words, as 
in holy, hay, &c. 2, A faint, contracted, shrill sound at the end of words, 
as in, Oh, ah, sirrah, which is its pure aspirate sound. After r, it is always 
silent : as in rhetoric, rheum, rhubarb. It is silent at the beginning of some 
words, as in hour, honor, &c. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 13 

Though A has been considered, heretofore, only as an aspirate, it is allow- 
ed now universally to be a letter. The reason that h has been considered 
as an aspirate is probably, 1, In the Greek, whose alphabet has no h, the 
sound is noted over the vowel, to which it belongs by a mark called the 
aspirate : 2, From the Lattin verb, aspiro, we derive our adjective, aspirate, 
which is the term ; and the sound of A, like all the other consonant sounds, 
existing almost entirely in the breath, and very little in the voice, it is 
perhaps, no great wonder, that h, has been considered, as an aspirate. And 
all our consonants are, in fact, little else than aspirates on the vowels. 

/has four sounds: 1, long, as in pine, fine, sign. 2, Short, as in join, 
sin, gin. 3, Of u short, as in dirt, flirt. 4, Of e long, as in machine, mag- 
azine. 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

1. la has but one sound, that of a short, as in special. It is a late thing 
making these vowels into an impure diphthong. They were and ought to 
be distinct syllables But the custom has become so prevalent that it 
would be hopeless to oppose it 

2. le has four sounds : 1, Of i long, as in die, pie, vie. 2, Of i short, as 
in sieve. 3, Of e long, as in grieve. 4, Of e short, as in friend. 

3. leu has but one sound, that of u long, as in lieu, adieu. 

4. Icio is the same in sound, as ieu, as in view. 

5. Io has one sound, that of u short, as in oration, vision, the termina- 
tion tion, and sion, sounding shun. This is quite a modern pronunciation. 

These terminations used to be separated into two syllables, thus orati-on, 
visi-on. But as this suppression of the i has become general, it is not 
probable that the old pronunciation will ever be restored. 

6. Iou has but one sound, that of u short, as in precious, factious, noxious. 
It is a late thing, that iou has become an impure triphthong, in any case. 
These letters still retain their ancient pronunciation, in many words, as in 
bilious, various, abstemious. The distinction, as now in use, as near as I 
can find, is this: that in all words ending in ious, preceded by c, or t, iou 
sounds u short, and the termination shus. In all words ending in ious, 
preceded by any other consonant except c, or t, these letters make distinct 
syllables. 

Iou, before s, at the end of words, is the pure English orthography, though 
o has been intruded between the i and u. This, like many other ortho- 
graphical errors, crept into our language, while the Norman French was 
the court language of England. The words, in which o has been thus in- 
truded, are from the latin, having the terminations us and ius, and that 
language has no such termination as ous, or ious. 

J has two sounds : 1, Of g soft, as in judge. Of y consonant, as in hal- 
lelujah, pronounced halleluyah - Wherein j has acquired the sound of y, it 
has usurped the place of i, with which it was once thought synonymous. 
Hallelujah is from the Greek word halleluiah. 

K has one uniform sound, which is hard and rough. Where the double 
sound of k occurs it is always written cc, or ck, as in occasion, pickle ; ex- 
cept inthe proper name Habakkuk, and a few others. 

Kn has but one sound, that of n, k being silent, as in knife, knell, know. 

L has but one sound, soft and liquid, as in love, bellow, quarrel. Modern 
pronunciation has silenced I before /. k and m, as in half, talk, salmon, 
jisalm. In a few proper names it is retained before m, as in Salmon, Palmer. 

It is double at the end of monosyllables, as in all, ball, call, ell, roill, poll. 

Le, at the end of words sounds el short, as in table, shuttle. This is an 
error in the position of the letters, introduced by the Norman French. In 
all words ending in le, i. e. in eZ,the letters ought to be placed, as they are 
pronounced, thus, tabel,shuttel, spittel, littel. 

M has two sounds : I, its own sound, as in dam, man, murmur. 2, Of n, 
asin comptroller. This second sound is of French origin having the p silent. 



14 < ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

JVhas two sounds: 1, its natural sound, as in van, nation. 2, A wring- 
ing sound, when followed by g, It, or q, as in sifto", bank, banquit. JV, at the 
end of words preceded by m, is silent, as in hymn. In the termination m<g*, 
in the participles, some reject the g, in sound. But this custom has not, 
and probably will not, gain sufficient ground, to require further notice. 

O has- five sounds : I, Long, as in note, over. 2, Short, as in not, pot, lot, 
3, Long and soft, as in move, prove. 4, Of u short, as in ton come. 5, Of 
wii, in one. Some suppose it has the sound of an short in for, nor, lord, 
and some other words. But it seems not so to me, and I believe any one 
will be satisfied, if he offtake the first consonant, in either of the foregoing 
words, in sound, till he gets the true sound of the vowel, and then careful- 
ly replace the consonant in sound, that the o is short. 

DIPHTHONGS. 

1. Oa has two sounds: 1, Of o long, as in boat, coat.. 2, Of an, as in 
broad, groat. 

2. Oe has three sounds : 1, of e long, as in foetus, Stbtmci. 2, of o long, 
as in toe, hoe, doe. Oe, at the beginning and middle of words, is becoming 
obsolete, and as the e alone answers all the purposes, it might be as well, 
perhaps, to omit the o entirely, except in proper names. 3, of oo soft, as 
in shoe. 

3. Oi has but one sound, its own dipthongal sound, as in oil, soil, point, 
joint. 

4. Oo has four sounds : 1, of o long, as in door, floor. 2, long and soft, 
as in bloom, goose. 3, of o short and soft, as in book, cook. 4, of u short, 
as in blood, flood. 

5. Ou has eight sounds : I, of au, as in bought fought. 2, its own 
diphthongal sound, as in thou, ounce. 3, of o long, as in dough, four. .4, of 
o short, as in cough, trough. 5, of oo long and soft, as in group, through. 
6, of u short and soft, as in could, would. 7 , of u long, as in youth, you. 
8, of u short, as in tough, rough. 

6. Oia has two sounds : 1, of ou, as in vow, bow, brown. 2, of o long, 
as ia blow, grow. At the end of words za is always silent, except it 
sounds u. 

7. Oy is only another form of writing oi, being the same in sound. 
When a word ends with the sound of i, it is generally written y, as in my, 
thy, spy. 

REMARKS ON THE SOUND OF 01 AND OU. 

An error has begun to creep into the sound of oi, even among men of 
letters, who ought to be free of the vulgarity, by mutilating it into i long, 
as point to pint ; join, jine; soil i site. It is very strange, that any person 
of learning', especially if he has an ear for music, should ever mutilate 
the soft sound of oi, which is the most- so of any sound in our language, 
into i simple and long. It seems'to have been the design of the diph- 
thongs and triphthongs to introduce a variety of vowel sounds, and render 
language more soft, musical and majestic ; and it is very strange that those 
who are, or ought to be sensible of these finishing beauties of language, 
.should ever destroy them. 

Ou, though a pure diphthong, at first, with one uniform sound, as in 
thou, from the influence, the Norman French has had over the English, has 
undergone so many changes, and which have become so established, that 
it would be useless to attempt to restore it to its primitive purity. But the 
sound, of this diphthong is so lofty and majestic, that it ought not farther 
to be innovated.- v> 

And as to pronunciation generally, it is no commendation to the literary 
institutions of our country, that so many go through their courses of study 
and come out with their vulgar pronunciations hardly bettered in a single 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 15 

instance. Great blame, in this respect, lies upon both teachers and schol- 
ars. 

P has two sounds : 1, its natural sound, as in play'. 2, of p, as in cup- 
board, clapboard, pronounced cubboard, clabboard. Some change the p into 
b, in writing, which is probably the better way. Some hold it to be silent 
between m and s,and m and t, as in Thompson, empty. And some are of 
the contrary opinion. 

Ph has two sounds : 1, Of/, as in physic, philosopher. 2, Of v, as in 
Stephen, (k) 

Pn has one sound, that of n, p being silent, as in pneumatics. 

Ps has one sound, that of s,p being silent, as in psalm, psalter. 

Pt has one sound, that of t, p being silent, as in Ptolemy. 

(k) Ph before th is silent, as in phthisic. 

Q has two sounds, and is always followed by u\ 1, natural, as in quorum, 
quart. 2, Of k, or a sound resembling k, as in conquor, liquor. 

R has two sounds : 1, Whenever it precedes the vowel, it is hard and 
rough, as in rite, drive. 2, When it succeeds the vowell, it is soft and 
smooth, as in bird, first, river 

Re, at the end of words sounds er, as in theatre, mitre, metre. It ought 
to be written er, as it is prononnced. This is another innovation of the 
Norman French upon the English language, and ought to be corrected. 
See (e. 

S has four sounds: ], Its hissing sound, as in sister, saint. 2, Of z, 
which is called its soft sound, as in words, gives. At the end of words it 
is soft, with a few exceptions, as in this, tans, and a few other words. In 
words ending in us, it has always its first sound, as in various virtuous. 3, 
Of sh before ion and u, as in confession, sugar. 4, Of zh, as in intrusion, 
vision. 

Between vowels it is soft, as in bosom, venison. Between a vowel and a 
consonant it is soft, as in loisdom. Between a consonant and a vowel it is 
hard, as in consequent, subsequent. 

Before I and n, it is sometimes silent, as in island demesne. 

Sh has one uniform sound, as in sash shall. 

Ss i's always hard when separable, as in assist, assign, assess, confesses, ex- 
cept in a few words, where, according to the American pronunciation, they 
have acquired the sound of sh, as in " Russia, Prussia, session." And in 
some words when inseparable, as "pressure." 

T has two sounds: 1, Its natural sound, as in to not. 2, Of sh before 
the terminations, ion, ious, as in salvation facetious . 

Th has three sounds : ^1, natural, as in id iih thin. 2, Soft, as in thou, 
booth. 3, Of t when preceded by ph, as in phthisic, making the h silent. 

TA, between vowels, in pure English words, is generally soft,, as in 
father, heathen, together. In words derived from the learned languages, 
it is generally natural, as in apathy, sympathy. Between vowels it is gen- 
erally soft, as in other. Between a consonant and a vowel it is alternately 
hard and soft, as in panther, orthodox, worthy, fanhing. It is sometimes 
silent, as in asthma. 

[/has four sounds: 1, Long, as in mule, use, sue. 2, short, as in nut, 
but, cut. 3, a sound nearly resembling the fourth sound of oo, as in bull, 
pull. 4, of i short, as in busy, business. 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

1. Ua has three sounds : 1, its natural sound, as in quart, quantity. 2, of 
to consonant, combined with a, as in assuage, persuade. 3, of a long, as in 
guardian. 

2. Udi has but one sound, that of id combined with a long, as in quail, 
quaint. 

3. Ue has five sounds : 1, its diphthongal sound, wherein the e is long, 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

as in query. 2, Wherein the e is short, as in quest. 3. Wherein the e has 
its third sound, as in quern querk. 4. Of u long, as in glue, blue. 5. Of e 
short, as in guess, guest. 

At the end of words it is frequently silent, as in tongue, dialogue, dema- 
gogue. This is another intrusion of the Norman French. The fact is, that 
ue silent, at the end of words, never belonged to the English language, and 
it is really matter of pleasure, that writers begin to omit it. 

4. Uea has one sound, that of the dipthong e, havinwg e long, as in squeak, 
squeal. 

5. Uee has one sound, that of the dipthong ue, having e long, as in queen. 

6. Ui has five sounds : 1. Its dipthongal sound long, as inquire, esquire. 
2. Its dipthongal sound short, as in quirne, quilt. 3. Of i long, as in guide, 
quite. 4. Of i short, as in build, guilt. 5. Of u long, as in bruise, suit. 

7. Uo has but one sound, as in quote, quorum. 

8. Uoi has one sound only, as in quoit. The vulgar pronunciation has 
corrupted this word into quate, against which teachers should guard. 

9. Uoy is the same sound, as uoi, as in buoy. 

10. Uy has one sound : Of i long, as in buy. 

Fhas one sound, as in nan, vat, love. Some call it/ flat, or soft, to whiich 
they say it bears the same relation, as b top, d to t, q to k, z to s. 

JFhas two sounds: 1. Of u when a vowel, as in law, saiu. 2. When a 
consonant it sounds we. It is sometimes silent at the end of words ; but 
for this no rule can be given. 

Much controversy has arisen about the nature and sound of w. Some 
hold it to be a consonant, at the beginning of words and syllables ; others 
the dipthong oo. See Perry, Sheridan, Murray, &c. 

I shall not undertake to copy and refute these various opinions ; but 
shall simply give my own and leave it to others to compare notes and 
judge for themselves, 

JF consonant, in all cases, sounds ice, and ought to be so pronounced, 
which, at once, would cure all the errors relevant to this letter and its 
sound, as a consonant. Notwithstanding it has been considered to sound 
oo, I believe, every one, by attentively sounding the to, by itself, until he 
gets its full sound, and then associating with it, the other letters combined 
with it, in any word, will be satisfied, that it has no affinity to oo ; and as 
fully satisfied, that its consonant sound, in all cases, is we, as in icill, ioo6, 
io arrant, ivelcome. 

Wh has two sounds: 1. Of h simple, as who. 2. Its sound, in what, 
when, where, why, wharf, fyc. which is so elementary, that no other letter 
or sound will represent it. It seems, however, to come nearer to ho, or oh, 
or hu, or uh, than any. 

X has two sounds: 1. Of ks, as in exact, box. 2. Of z at the begin- 
ning of proper names, as in Xenophon, Xanthiphe, Xanthus ; and at the end 
of some common nouns plural, as beaux, batteaux. 

Fhas four sounds : 1. Of i long, as in my, fly thy. 2. Of i short, as in 
system, pyramid. 3. Of e short, as in crazy, happy. 4. Its consonant 
sound, which is ye, as in yet yesterday. 

The like errors have been adopted, as to the sound of this letter, as of w, 
and for the like reasons. The sound of y, consonant, is always ye. See 
observations, on w consonant ; then call y, consonant ye, and follow the 
same directions, as are there given. 

The consonant sound of this letter has been considered to be ee, diph- 
thong. But if any one is unconvinced, that that theory is wrong and mine 
right, I know no arguments, which I can use to convince. 

Z has one uniform sound, as in buz, Zion, lazy. 

The sounds of the letters, as they are differently associated, depend on 
laying the accent. Nothing more distinguishes a person of refined, from 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 17 

one of vulgar education, than the pronunciation of the unaccented vowels. 
The accented vowels are pronounced nearly alike, by good and bad speak- 
ers ; but the unaccented vowels, in the mouths of the former have a clear, 
distinct, open, and specific sound, while the other often totally sink, or mu- 
tilate them. 

We might suppose, perhaps, that no great variety could be produced, 
from so few simple characters. But on a minute examination, they are 
found to contain about one hundred and fifty definable sounds. Add to 
this the great variety of combinations which are undoubtedly several thou- 
sand, producing an indefinable variety of sound, and we shall not be sur- 
prised, at the elegance, versatility, harmony and copiousness of the En- 
glish language, which would yield to none, if properly cultivated. 

Beside the various changes of pronunciation of the letters, as above de- 
scribed, certain terminations have, by common use, acquired certain sounds, 
which are not analagous to the sounds of those letters, as ial, in certain 
words, is pronounced shal, as social, soshal. Ion, in oration, pronounced 
orashun. Ght, in righteous, pronounced richus. 

§ 3. OF ARTICULATION. 

The windpipe conveys air to and from the lungs, for the purposes of 
breath and speech. The upper part of this pipe is called the larynx, com- 
posed of five firm circular cartilages lying one above another, and is smooth 
and hollow, on the inside like a flute. These cartilages may be separated 
and brought together, by the action of certain muscles. 

At the top of the larynx, in the centre is a small circular passage, through 
which the breath passes, called the glottis, of about one tenth of an inch in 
diameter. This small aperture is capable of so many very delicte con- 
tractions, as to form all the distinct tones of the voice, which are reckoned 
to be more than sixty. 

The breath, passing through the glottis in a forcible, steady column, forms 
what we call the voice. The voice is strengthened, softened, and modu- 
lated, by a verberation from the palate and other cavities of the mouth and 
nostrils ; aud according to the roughness, or smoothness of the glottis, and 
the better or worse shape of the other cavities, the voice is more, or less 
agreeable. 

This voice, after passing the glottis, is formed, by the other organs, into 
articulate sounds, which make what we call speech, or language. 

This forming of the voice into distinct and various sounds is what we 
call articulation. 

Articulation is performed altogether, without the larynx, by the throat, 
palate, tongue, teeth, lips and nostrils, something after the manner, that 
notes are formed on the flute, by the action of the fingers, on the wind holes. 

The simplest of these sounds proceed from an open mouth, and by gram- 
marians, are called vowels, or voices. 

These vowel sounds combined, make what we call diphthongs and thrip 
thongs. 

Those sounds, which are formed by closing and dilating all or part of the 
organs of articulation, are what we call consonant sounds. 

The elements of language, therefore, according to the different seats, 
where they are formed, or the several different organs of speech used in 
their formation, naturally divide into (I) vocal, those formed by the voice; 
palatine, those formed by the pal ate ; lingual, those formed by the tongue; 
dental, those formed by the teeth ; nasal, those formed by the nose; labial, 
'' those formed by the lips. 

(I) seems to be the only pure vowel sound, in language, having the 
organs in an exact circle, and is the only sound which is really natural. 

Quintilian says, a Let no one despise, as inconsiderable, the elements of 
grammar, because it may seem a matter of small consequence, to show the 
distinction between vowels and consonants, and divide the latter into liquids 



18 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

and mutes. For they, who penetrate into the innermost parts of the temple 
of science, will there discover such refinement and subtilty of matter, as 
are proper not only to sharpen the understandings of young people, but 
sufficient exercise for the most profound knowledge and erudition." 

And it is with this kind of knowledge, as with all others, it is only de 
spised, by those, who are either entirely ignorant of it, or learn it in so short 
a time, as to learn nothing correctly. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF SYLLABLES AND THEIR FORMATION. 

A syllable is one simple, or complex sound, (m) 

(m) A syllable, formed of one simple sound, is a single vowel, and one, 
formed of a complex sound, is formed of two vowels combined, or one, or 
more vowels combined with one, or more consonants. 

Letters are formed into syllables, and syllables into words ; and this is 
what we call the art of spelling. 

1. A single consonant, between two vowels, must be joined to the prece- 
ding vowel, if short, as in fil-I-al, bev-er-age. 

2. If the preceding vowel be long, the consonant must be joined to the 
succeeding syllable, as in de-light, bridal, re-source. 

3. Two consonants, proper to begin a word, should not be separated, as 
in ta-ble, tri-fie, un-der-stand. 

4. When they come between two vowels, and are not proper to begin a 
word, they should be separated, as ut-most, in-sect. 

5. A double consonant, between two vowels, should be separated, as er- 
ror, ad-der, cof-fin. 

6. Three consonants, proper to begin a word, the preceding vowel being 
long, should not be separated, as de-throne, de-stroy. 

7. But if the preceding vowel be short, the first consonant should be 
joined to the preceeding vowel, if they are not proper to begin a word, as 
up-start, ap-prove, ab-stain, com-plete. 

8. Four consonants, not proper to begin a word, coming between two 
vowels, the first should be joined to the preceding vowel, as constrain. 

9. Ph and th coming together between two vowels, ph should be joined to 
the preceding vowel, as diph-thong, triph-thong. 

10. Vowels, which are not diphthongs, should be separated, as cru-el, 
cre-ate, soci-ety. 

11. Compound words should be traced to their simples, as good-ness, 
not-with-standing, never-the-less, apple-pie, grace-ful. 

12. Grammatical terminations should be retained in the same syllable, as 
long-est, long-ing, lov-ed, se-eth. 

These rules are liable to many exceptions, but come as near a standard, 
as any, that can be devised. The great standard, after all, must be to divide 
the syllables , as they appear naturally to separate themselves, in true and 
elegant pronunciation. 



CHAPTER III. 

OF WORDS AND THEIR FORMATION. 

§ 1. OF THE NATURE OF WORDS AND THEIR NAMES. 

Words are articulate sounds, used as signs of ideas. 

A word of one syllable is called a monosyllable ; of two syllables, a 
disyllabic; of three syllables, a trisyllable; of more than three syllables, a 
polysyllable. 



ORTHOGRAPHY, 19 

Words are primitive or derivative. 

Primitive words cannot be reduced to any simpler words, as at, but, man, 
good, go. 

Derivative, or compound words, may be reduced to their simple words, 
as manful, watercourse, highway, notwithstanding". 

Words derived from other languages, are generally considered as primi- 
tive, in our language, though derivative, in thejanguage whence derived. 

§ 2. OF TERMINATIONS. 

Though our language is so irregular, that we cannot reduce it to settled 
rules ; yet the following, with exceptions, may cast some light on the subject. 

1. Monosyllables, ending in /, I, s, preceded by a single vowel, double 
the final consonant, as staff, ill, pass ; except as, is, his has, was, yes, us, 
thus. 

2. Words ending in any other consonants except/, I, and s, never double 
the final consonant. Butt is however, an exception with a few proper names. 

3. Words ending in y, preceded by a consonant, form the plural of 
nouns, the third person singular of verbs, the comparative and superlative 
degree of adjectives, by changing the y into i, and adding es, s, er, or est, 
as Dry, drier, driest, dries, berry, berries. 

But if y be part of a diphthong pure, or impure, it is retained, as boy, 
boys, delay, delays, fyc. 

4. Words ending with a single consonant, preceded by a vowel, having 
the accent on the last syllable, on assuming an additional syllable, double 
the last consonant, as beginning, thinnish. 

But if a diphthong precede, or the syllable be unaccented, the consonant 
remains single, as toilsome, suffering, maiden. 

5. Words ending with any double letter, but I, on assuming the termina- 
tions, ness, less, fid, ly, preserve the double letter,. as harmlessness, success- 
fid, stiffly. 

But words ending in 11, on assuming the same terminations, generally 
omit one I, asfuhiess, skilful. 

■ 6. When full is added, as a termination to any word, one I should be 
dropt, as skilful, mind/W. 

7. Words ending in e final, on assuming an additional termination, omit 
the e, as judgment, peacful, guiltless, closly, palness, blamable. 

8. Ment added to verbs and adjectives as a termination, changes them to 
nouns, as commandment, abatment, merriment. 

9. Ness added, as a termination, changes adjectives to nouns, as good' 
ness, happiness. 

10. Less and fid added to words, as terminations, change nouns to ad- 
jectives, as matchless, revengful- 

11. Ly added to words, as a termination, changes nouns to adjectives, 
and adjectives to adverbs, as manly, honestly. 

12. Ing added as a termination, changes verbs to present participles as, 
loving. 

13. D, ed, and ght added as terminations, change verbs to perfect partici- 
ples, as loved, delighted, taught. 

14. All added to words as a termination, changes prepositions to adverbs, 
as withal, f oral. 

15. When words become parts of other words, by composition, they 
should be written together, as notwithstanding, atonce, accordingto, outof, 
hisoion, hehimself, thereaftencards. 

A strict adherance to this rule would add much to the neat appearance 
of written language. 

16. Words, which become, in sense, composite parts of verbs, should be 
pre incorporated with them, as overrun, outstand, offset, underwrite, withhold^ 
waylay. 

This rule has gained considerable ground with late writers, and is eapa- 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

ble of much farther improvement, which would o-reatlv w„r<- 

guage render it more elegant, and equally Ixpressfve 7 ^^ ^ ^ 

17 .he and tie added to words, as a termination, change verhs to adiert 
lves, as expressive, projectile. s verns to adject- 

18. Nouns are changed to adjectives bv i*h; n „ *t,„ * ■' .- 

20. £ S added to adjectives changes them to nouns, as riches 

Rep P rst^OthMrfelT n a th MTR e | 93 See A 7 MS - Rep - 23 5' 8 Ms " 

whSiTv*T^™ ^t intained in the Use 0f covimissionerhj every writer 
tion to the fact as it is, we shall ^ ttf^Sd^^^^ Tow 

§ 3. OF COMBINATIONS. 

Would the limits of an elementary work permit, this might afford much 
pleasure and entertainment. It is no small curiosity to observe how words 

ter7 the 6 adtoion n fr and - ^^T^' by the diffe - nt comb™a£7onS 
xers, tne addition, or omission, of a single letter 

lake a an article ; subjoin t, makes at, preposition ; prefix b makes bat 

In command, change a to e, makes cwieri. From commandment IrUp 
^d makes eo^e^. Suply it with tf, makes commitment ^ 

nv B fil ' S i JOm W ' makes ora; P refix *> makes ton; subjoin e, makes tone ■ 
piefix «, makes atone ; subjoin me B (, makes atonment. J ' ' 

anyterf« , I l a t 11 iat^ nt ^ t*^ t0 ° therS ' whioh cal1 be c «™« to 
any lengm ot speculation, which curiosity may suggest. 



PAET II. 
ETYMOLOGY 



CHAPTER I. 

THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

Etymology teaches the origin of words, their true meaning 
and signification, their classification, into the different parts of 
speech. 

Words in the English language, are divided into eleven classes 
or parts of speech. 1, the Noun; 2, Pronoun; 3 Article; 4, 
Adjective; 5, Adverb; 6, Verb; 7, Participle; 8, Gerund; 9, 
Preposition; 10, Conjunction; 11, Interjection. 

All languages being radically nouns and verbs, must agree in form and 
use, so far as they agree in varying and adjectiving those two radical parts 
of speech. I have thought it proper to put those classes, which are parts, 
or variations of the noun first, and together, and then the classes, which are 
parts or variations of the verb. 

Language is divisible into two kinds, written and spoken. Spoken — is 
addressed to the ear only, and is a succession of associated vocal sounds. 
Written — is the representation of those sounds, by visible characters vari- 
ously combined. 

Note. — Every language abstractly considered, consists only of nouns and 
► verbs; i. c, things and their motions. But, for the brevity, convenience 
and ornament of speech, we have modified, or adjectived the noun into four 
other classes, the pronoun, article, adjective and adverb. 

The verb also is modified, or adjectived into five other differnt classes ; 
the participle, gerund, preposition, conjunction and interjection. 

Note. — 1 have planed the gerund among the verbs, though it partakes 
both of the nature of a verb and noun, because it seems more naturally to 
fall under the head of the verb, than the noun, being derived from the verb, 
and still partaking of the nature of the verb, though always used, in part, 
as a noun. See chap, of Gerunds. 

A few of our prepositions are apparently derived from nouns. I am in- 
clined to believe that those nouns are, in fact, derived from verbs, that is, 
are the contraction of participles, or the third person of the verb in the in- 
dicative singular, whose radical verbs are now lost to us. But I have not 
been able so to trace out the roots as to be certain, though I am pretty well 
satisfied, in my own mind, that this is the case. If so, our prepositions are 
radically all verbs. It is not the nature of a noun to govern anything, ex- 
cept the possessive case. 

Grammariass-iiave differed, in opinion, as to the different parts of speech. 
Some -allowing ten, some eight, and some four. (See 1 Took, 38-'9 and 
196-'7.) It is beyond all dispute that we have, in English, four ways of ad- 



22 ■ ENGLISH. GRAMMAR. 

jectiving, or varying, in using the noun as above named. We must either 
give those modifications distinct names, by which to know them and under- 
stand their several uses ; or we must be stopping, at every step, to explain 
them. The former practice is more convenient, and the one adopted in the 
manner of teaching all the differnt branches of the sciences. We shall 
therefore pursue it in the digest. 

The verb is also so varied or adjectivedas to be used in five different ways, 
beside the radical verb. We therefore give names to these, for convenience, 
as we have to the variations of the noun. 

The above names are given to the different parts of speech, for the ready 
and convenient understanding of them, in their use and application to and 
with each other, as they occur and associate together in the formation of 
sentences, and in analizing and solving them, in applying the rules of syn- 
tax. Of them, explanation will be given more fully, in treating of the 
several classes, in their order. And these old names are retained, because 
they are and have been for a great length of time, in use, in the English and 
other languages, and are better understood than new names could be. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF THE NOUN. 

§ 1. OF SUBSTANTIVES IN GENERAL. 

A noun or substantive, is the name of anything, whether mate- 
rial or immaterial, or of which we can form any idea or notion : 
as, matte?*, spirit, angel, man, virtue, vice. 

Substantives are of two kinds, proper and common. 

§ 2. OF PROPER NOUNS. 

All nouns, which express the names of particular persons, places 
and things, are called proper. As, George Washington, Napoleon 
Bonaparte, America, Europe, Asia, Africa* 

§ 3. OF COMMON NOUNS. 

Common nouns are those containing whole genera and species 
of animals and things. Animal is a genus containing all living 
creatures having the power of self-motion, and is divided into all 
the different species of animals. Man is the name of one species; 
fish of another ; birds of another. These again become generic 
terms, which are divisible into their appropriate species, as the 
different kinds of men, beasts, birds, fishes, &c. 

Vegetable is the genus containing all living things without animal life. 
Trees, are the name of one species, herbs, of another, and grass, of another. 
These again all become generic terms, divisible into their appropriate spe- 
cies — the different kinds of trees, herbs, grass, &c. 

When proper names have an article associated, they become common : as, 
44 He is the Cicero of the age." So common nouns become proper by the 
association of the article : as, " The boy, i. e., John, is studious.' 1 

Four things belong to substantives : Gender, Number, Case 
and Person. 



ETYMOLOGY. • 23 

§ 4. OF GENDER. 

Gender, in its proper signification, means the distinction of the 
male sex from the female, but for the use and convenience of 
parsing and analizing language, we have adopted also the neuter 
gender, as applied to such nouns as do not, of themselves, ex- 
hibit any marks of gender. 

Note. — The neuter gender has at all times been questioned and denied 
by some writers. But, as they are a class of nouns entirely distinct from 
those nouns which clearly designate the male and female, it has been the 
general opinion and practice of philologists and grammarians, in all ages 
and languages, to give this class of noun, a distinct name, as to gender, and 
call them neuter, i. e., neither gender. If we should adopt the other course, 
with this class of nouns, we should be' continually put to the trouble of ex- 
plaining these nouns, which occur more or less, in almost every sentence, 
and outpointing the reasons why they are neither masculine nor feminine, 
which would, in the end, amount to the same thing as calling them by the 
distinctive name of neuter. And, by applying this name to any noun, it 
saves the time and trouble of explanation. For, when we call any noun 
neuter, we mean a noun which does not, in itself, show any distinctive sign 
of the male or female sex. I shall, therefore, adopt the old practice and re- 
tain the neuter gender. 

The masculine includes all males: as man, boy, horse. 
The feminine includes all females: as woman, girl, mare. 
The neuter includes all things without animal life:, as a field, 
a cart, an orchard. 

Note. — This, in a philosophical sense, is not true, for all nature, even to 
the very stones, is animate, male and female, for, without the intercourse of 
the sexes, through all nature, being could not be perpetuated. And we are 
as certain that the vegetable creation perpetuates existence by the inter- 
course of the sexes, as that animals do. And the basis of these genders, in 
nature, are the positive and negative electricity The positive being the ba- 
sis of the male, and the negative of the female sex. This explains the sim- 
ple cause of the constant, uniform and perpetual attraction and cohesion of 
matter, in forming and organizing all the different kinds of bodies through 
all nature, both animate and inanimate. Mahomet saith, "praise is due to 
Him, who created the male and female of all plants." Alk., ch. 36. 

All nouns, which are naturally of the neuter gender, become either mas- 
culine or .feminine, when figuratively used. As we say of the ship, she 
sails. 

In English, we figuratively call all nouns masculine, which are conspc- 
uous for the attributes of imparting and communicating, and which are na- 
turally strong and efficacious. Thus the Sun and Time are stiled mascu- 
line. 

Those nouns, which are conspicuous for attributes of containing? conceiv- 
ing and bringing forth, or are peculiarly beautiful, or lovely, are esteemed 
feminine. Thus the moon, for her beauty and mildness, fortune, for her 
fickleness, a ship, for her grandeur and beauty, and for her capacity, are es- 
teemed feminine. 

In English, we have seven ways of distinguishing the sexes : 

1. By prefixing wo to a noun : as, Man, Woman. The old Saxon spelling 
was iciman, i. e., icife-man, which was probably corrupted into woman, by the 
influence of the Norman French, when it was the Court language of Eng- 
land. In the plural, we still pronounce it wimen. I see no reason, why we 
should not again adopt our own proper spelling and get rid of this badge of 
degradation, and write wimdn and wimen. 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. \By the use of different words : as, boy, girl, father/mother. 

3. By adding ess and ine : Count, countess; Hero, horeine. Ess is from 
essa, Hebrew — a female. 

4. By changing or into rix : Executor, executrix. 

5. By changing ot into ess : as, Abbot into abbess. 

6. By prefixing a pronoun : as, the goat, she-goat. 

7. By prefixing an adjective : as, Male-child, female-child. 

Another class of words comes under what is called the common gender, 
that is masculine or feminine, as the case may be. As parent, child, neigh- 
bor, friend, &c. All such words are masculine, when the person is mas- 
culine and feminine, when the person is feminine. 

When a number of words are used in the same sentence, of different gen- 
ders, which are coupled together, or used in apposition, the most worthy 
gender is used, in applying the adjective, pronoun, &c. And the masculine 
is considered more worthy than feminine, and the feminine, than the 
neuter. 

Nouns, whose variable terminations express the different sexes, contribute 
much to the strength, beauty, neatness, and perspicuity of language. We 
have enough to make us sensible of our want. For, when we say of a wo- 
man, she is a philosopher, an astronomer, a builder, &c, we perceive an 
impropriety we cannot avoid. But we can call her a botanist, or a student, 
without feeling any impropriety, for these words do not necessarily attach 
the idea of sex to them. 



§5. 



OF NUMBER. 



Number is the distinction of one, from more than one, or many. 

Substantives have two numbers, the singular and plural. 

The singular comprehends but one person or thing : as, a man, 
a chair, a horse. 

The plural comprehends more than one : as, men, chairs, 
horses 

Note. — The Greek had three numbers: singular, dual and plural. The 
singular comprehended one, the dual two, and the plural over two, or many. 
This use of numbers probably gave rise to the mode of counting, or num- 
bering, as one, two many which has become obsolete. The Latins had 
a similar form, especially in judicial proceedings, in numbering executions : 
as, execution, alias, plures. But this form is becoming obsolete, with us, 
and first, second, third, &c. adopted. 

Some nouns have no plurals : as, wheat, rye, corn, &c. These are in 
nature of collective nouns singular. 

Others have no singulars : as, bellows, scisors, lungs, riches, &c. These 
are in nature of collective nouns plural. 

Collective nouns of multitude are either singular, or plural, according to 
the ideas they express. They are such as army, herd, people, assembly, 
multitude, &c. When the individuals, they express, are collectively ex- 
pressed, with a unity of idea, they are singular. When the form of the ex- 
pression alludes to the individuals distributively considered, making a plu- 
rality of idea, they are plural. 

We have, in English, the following rules for forming the plural from the 
singular, which probably include all our nouns. 

1. By adding s ro the singular : as, love, loves ; face, faces. 

2. When the singular ends in x, ch, natural, sh, ss, or o, the plural is 
formed by adding es, or en: as box, boxes ; ox, oxen ; church, churches ; sash, 
sashes ; kiss, kisses ; hero, heroes. When ch is hard, rule first applies : as 
Monarch, Monarchs. 

3. The singular ending in /, fe, ovff, the plural is formed by changing 



ETYMOLOGY. 23 

those terminations into, ins : as, loaf, loaves ; wife, icivcs ; staff, staves. To 
this rule are some exceptions; grief, griefs; sheriff, sheriffs, &c. 

4. The singular ending in y, preceded by a consonant, the plural is form- 
ed by changing y into ies, as assembly, assemblies, &c. This is the modern 
formation. ° The old English had all these words ending in ie, and then the 
plurals were formed by adding s, according to rule 1. 

When y is preceded by a vowel, rule first applies, as attorney, attorneys 
key, keys; delay, delays. 

5. Some nouns form the plural by changing a to e, as man, men. But 
most nouns of this spelling form their plurals by rule first, as 'plan, plans. 

6. Some nouns form their plurals, by adding en, or ren, as brother, breth* 
ren; child, children. Brother also conforms to rule first, as Brothers. 

7. Some nouns form their plurals, by changing oo, into ee, as foot, feet; 
tooth, teeth. And some nouns, in oo, conform to rule first, as boot, boots. 

8. Some nouns ending in ouse make their plurals by changing that into 
ice, as mouse, mice. And some conform to rule first, as house, houses. 

9. Some nouns ending in ie form their plurals by interplacing c between 
i and e, as Die, [to play with] dice. Some conform to rule first : as die % 
dies, to coin with. 

10. Some nouns form the plural, by changing ny into ce, as penny pence. 

11. Some nouns form their plurals, by changing ow into ine, as cow, kine. 
K is used in the plural, because c is soft before i. Rule first also applies 
here, as cow, coics. Kine is probably become obsolete, especially in Amer- 
ica, except as an adjective, as kine pock. In the old English, kine was the 
plural of ky. Kye is still used in Scotland, for cattle. Cardell, § 83. 

12. Nouns of latin origin and of the masculine gender, ending in us y 
form the plural, by changing us into i, as stimulus, stimuli. Those ending 
in us, in the neuter gender, form the plural, by changing us into era, as 
genus, genera. 

13. Nouns of Greek origin in the nuter, form the plural, by changing on 
into a, as phenomenon, phenomena. 

14. Nouns of Hebrew origin form the plural, by adding im to the singular, 
as seraph, seraphim. And sometimes rule first is applied, as seraphs, cher- 
ubs. 

Though these rules are all liable to exceptions, they probably embrace all 
the various ways of forming the plurals in our language, 

§ 6. OF CASE. 

English substantives have three cases : the nominative, posses- 
sive and objective. 

Case, in Grammar, has two definitions. 1. The varying of the termina- 
tions of declinable words. 2. the different relations, in which declinable 
words stand to each other. Much controversy has been among Gramma- 
rians, for many ages, concerning the cases of English nouns, which has all 
been for want of a proper definition. I shall only observe that the pronuuns 
personal have the three cases by termination. This being admitted, it is im- 
possible for a substitute to have and occupy a place, which the principal 
cannot. I consider that a great majority of writers and teachers are so well 
agreed, in the adoption and use of the three cases, that argument would be 
wholly useless. 

Nouns, in all their different branches, to wit, noun, pronoun, article, ad- 
jective and adverb, are declinable ; but the adverb is only used in the objec- 
tive singular, neuter gender. Nouns and pronouns are the only parts of 
speech which vary in their terminations in the different cases, numbers and 
genders. 

1. The nominative case expresses the agent of the verb, or the 
person or thing acting, as, "I learn, thou readest, he plays." 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. The possessive case expresses propriety or possession, and 
is formed by the addition of s to the nominative separated by an 
apostrophe, as " John's house.' ' 

Cardell, Essay § 124, says the noun, in the possessive^ is only a mode of 
distinguishing one thing by its relation to another, and is always an adjective, 
by use. This is measurably true, but not in the true sense to the extent he 
would represent it. Taken in the sense in which he represents it, it would 
measurably resolve all the different parts of speech, into adjectives, because 
all are, more or less, adjective of, or qualifying each other. He seems to 
have overlooked the great principle of language, the minute and close rela- 
tionship between all words used, in speech, of intercommunication with, 
and explanation of each other. And language would have no elegance, 
beauty, nor charm, without it. He seems also in a measure to have over* 
looked the design and use of the possessive case and possessive pronouns, 
which do not relate, at all, to the adjective meaning of words, but 
merely to the mechanical construction of speech. Language, consid- 
ered in its grammatical form, is as purely mechanical, as a house, or 
chaise, and in all Veil settled and organized languages, is reducable to rules 
as perfectly simple, exact and certain, as mechanics or mathematics. And 
the only reason why the English language has lain so long, in so rude and 
unsettled a state, is, that this particular branch of the language has, by our 
grammarians, been neglected. 

When the nominative ends in ss, the apostrophe is added without the s, 
as, u goodness' sake. The s added to the nominative with an apostrophe is 
only a contraction of the possessive case of the pronoun he, i. e., his, and 
formerly the pronoun was used, as, God his grace. But as we now write it, 
God's grace, the s is combined with the noun, and the, whole makes but one 
syllable. But if the s ..makes an additional syllable, it should be added, 
and the i ought also to be retained, so that the spelling might conform to the 
pronunciation, and the apostrophe omitted, as, " the foxis cunning." All 
other languages,so far as I know, write all the letters, which are pronounced. 
Our poor English, which has been made a begger and an outcast, especially 
by the English iterati, has always been abused, in this and various other 
ways. 

Although we have bat these two forms of the possessive,by termination, we 
have another mode of expressing possession, by the use of the preposition 
of, in the objective case, as, u by the grace of God." No other preposition 
is used in this way, and no other is capable of use, because of is the only 
preposition signifying offspring, extraction, or hereditary relationship. See 
preposition of, 

3. The objective case is placed after the verb, or preposition, 
by which it is governed, being the object, on which they respec- 
tively act, as " John loves study ;" " he came from the country." 

§ 7, OF THE DECLENSION OP NOUNS. 

The English nouns seem naturally to class themselves into two 
declensions. The first declension forms the possessive case, sin- 
gular, by the addition of s to jthe nominative, separated by an 
apostrophe. And, in some words, by the use of the apostrophe, 
without the s, 

FIRST DECLENSION. 





Sing. 


Plu. 


Sing. 


Norn... 


....Lord, 


Lords, 


Goodness, 


Poss.... 


... Lord's, 


Lords', 


Goodness', 


Obj 


....Lord, 


Lords. 


Goodness. 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

The second declension forms the possessive by adding is to the 
nominative singular, making an additional syllable, in all cases, 
and ought so always to be written. 

Sing. Plu. 

Nom Fish, Fishes, 

Pos Fishis, Fishes' 

Obj Fish, Fishes. 

No obscurity can happen from writing this class of nouns, as we pro- 
nounce them, for the possessive singular is written is, and all the plural ca- 
ses are written es. 

The above are exactly the forms, in which the English nouns are used in 
their formation, in common speech, and have been probably for several hun- 
dred years. If the literati will not, in their written language, adopt the 
forms, which themselves and the common people constantly use, without 
any deviation, from day to day, in their spoken language, they must still go 
on, in their obstinacy, and scandalize and abuse, instead of systemizing and 
ornamenting their own native tongue, and still continue to use but one de- 
clension. 

If others should see fit to adobt and use the second declension, they will 
observe that the i is short and the s soft like z, which will be sure to pre- 
vent any mistake as to the case, or sound of the letters, 

§ 8, OF PERSON. 

Nouns have three persons. 

1. The person speaking is always of the first person, and is 
called the agent, being designated by the pronoun I, expressed or 
understood, as "I love, I am." 

2. When a call, address, salutation, or command is made, the 
person, or thing called, &c, is of the second person, and is desig- 
nated by the pronoun thou, ye or you, expressed, or understood, 
as "Thou Lord, come ye, hear thou me." 

3. Any person, or thing spoken of, and all subjects of discourse 
are of the third person and designated by the pronoun he, ex- 
pressed or understood^ as "he loves, the sun shines." 

I have named I, thou and he, as the pronouns designating the three per- 
sons, the others being only the variation of these, in the different cases, 
numbers, persons and genders. Some of our nouns are original, and 
some derivative. 1. Original: as horse, ox, cow, wood, stone. 2. Deriva- 
tive : of this class are all those, that are taken from the third person of 
verbs, and the participles. 3. All the third class are those, that are made 
by composition, as sawmill, hansaw, millmen, &c. We have many nouns 
formed, by adding the Gothic, Saxon and Latin terminations, er, wer, ar, 
var, ver and vir, which in those tongues ment a man, as lover, giver, law- 
yer, stranger, fyc. 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER III. 

OF PRONOUNS. 

§ 1. OF THE PRONOUNS GENERALLY AND THEIR USE. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid too fre- 
quent repetition of the same word, as "my brother was here yes- 
terday, and he is gone home." 

Pronouns are divisible into four kinds : personal, relative, pos- 
sessive and adjective. 

Some grammarians object to this classification, holding that the relative, 
possessive and adjective pronouns are in fact all adjectives, and should be 
all referred to and treated of under the head of adjectives. But they would 
then require to be explained, in the same manner as here; therefore I can 
see no good reason for the change. And, after all, they have more of the 
pronoun nature, than of the adjective. And a great majority of writers and 
teachers, have adopted, and prefer this classification 



§2. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



We have three personal pronouns in the English language : I, 
Thou, He. 

Grammarians have generally reconed eight, I, we, thou, ye or you, he, 
she, it and they. We might as well recon all the different, numbers, gen- 
ders and persons, which would make thirty. The fact is, the nominative 
singular is the standard, by which to recon their numbers, for all the other 
forms of the pronouns are only the different cases, numbers and genders of 
those pronouns. Those three pronouns are probably not all primitive 
words, in our language. J is derived either from ego, Greek, or from the 
same parent stock, in the Gothic, or old Tutonic. In the old English it 
was written ick, or ig. In the progress of time, the ch and g were dropped 
and the I retained. It is undoubtedly the same word originally as the 
Greek and Latin ego. Mine, in the possessive is probably original in the 
Gothic and Saxon, or corrupted from the Latin meus. Our objective me 
is the same as the accusative in the Latin or Greek. Whether we 
have borrowed and adopted it from the Greek, or that those three lan- 
guages have all received it from the Tutonic and Gothic I am not able to 
determine. In the plural, the nominative we and possessive ours, are prob- 
ably primitive in our language. Our objective us I suppose to be a contrac- 
tion of ours by dropping the o and r, or of the Latin nos, os, us. 

I am unable to determine if thou is primitive in the Saxon and Gothic, or 
derived to us from the Greek, through the Latin. The Greeks wrote it su 
and the Latins tu. Our possessive thine 1 am inclined to think is a con- 
traction of thou and am, or imi, Greek, which is the same word. The ob- 
jective thee is probably the Greek se brought into the Latin te, or primitive 
in the Gothic aud Saxon. The plural ye or you, is probably either a cor- 
ruption of the Latin vos, or primitive from the Gothic and Saxon. The 
possessive, ours is probably primitive. 

He and she are probably primitives. The possessive his prooaKy a 
contraction of he and is. Hers her are probably primitive. Him is the old 
Saxon and Gothic hem, which, till within a few hundred years was used in- 
discriminately for him and them. It, in the neuter, formerly written hit, in 
the English, and in the Saxon and Gothic, hit, hyt and het, or hcet, and is 
the past participle of the Gothic verb, haitan, or h©tan, and means a thing 



ETYMOLOGY. 



29 



named or told. Its, in the possessive, is probably the contraction of it and 
is. 

They, in the nominative plural, in the Gothic and Saxon written tha, 
and in the old English thei, I suppose to be primitive. At what time the i 
was changed to ey, I have not been able to determine. In the possessive 
we still retain the old English spelling, thei. The addition rs, I suppose to 
be the contraction of are and is, making theirs. The objective, them, was 
formerly written hem. When the t was added and from what derived, I am 
wholly unable to determine. So also of the change of e to i in the sin- 
gular. 

DECLENSION OP PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 





First Per 


son. 




Second Person. 




Sing. 


Plu. 




Sing 




Plu. 


Norn 


— i, 


We, 




Thou 


> 


Ye or you 


Pos.- 


— Mine, 


Ours 


> 


Thine, 


Yours, 


Obj, 


— Me, 


Us, 


Third 


Thee, 
Person. 




You. 




Sing. 






Plu. 






M. 


F. 


JV. 


M. 


F. 


ffi 


Norn 


.—He, 


She, 


It, 


They, 


They, 


They, 


Pos.- 


—His, 


Hers. 


Its, 


Theirs, 


Theirs 


, Theirs, 


Obj.- 


— Him, 


Her, 


It, 


Them, 


Them, 


Them. 



Cardell, Essay, § 109, says that mine, or my and me, have no radical con- 
nexion with I. Our I is the Greek and Latin ego. It runs down through 
the Gothic, Saxon and old English, in the form ig, eg and ic. In modern 
English we have droped the g or e and retained the i. In the Greek and 
Latin, ego, is the nominative, and me the accusative, our objective case. 
Mine, my, or mi, our possessive case, is derived directly from mei, the pos- 
sessive case, in the Latin, by dropping the intermediate vowel, e, retaining 
mi, or my, as the case may be, i and y being interchangeable letters, in 
English, and always have been. Mine is now retained as the possessive 
case, and is undoubtedly the contraction of my own, with the addition of e 
final, which is a common appendage of any syllable in English, to note that 
the preceding vowel is long. Me is the same in the Greek, Latin, Gothic, 
Saxon, old and modern English. Our possessive, is probably a contraction of 
thy and own, with the addition of e final. Thy is probably derived from the 
Latin genitive, or possessive, tui, by interplacing h, and changing i to y. 

Though the plural of the third person makes no variation, in form, in the 
different cases and genders, they are used in all the genders and cases, as 
laid down in the above scale. I have, therefore, thought it would be more 
intelligible to the learner than an explanation. 

In declining the personal pronoun of the third person, the nominative 
case should be run through first, in all the genders, and then the posses- 
sive and objective cases. The like course should be pursued, in the plural. 
And all declinable words having the different genders should be declined in 
this way. 

The person speaking and spoken to being always" present, no question 
can be about their genders. Therefore, no genders have been assigned to 
them in language. But the person or things spoken of, being generally 
supposed to be absent, genders have been assigned to them in order to know 
whether they are male or female, or inanimate objects. 



30 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



§ 3. OF COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

They are compounded, 1, by adding self to the possessive pro- 
noun. 2. By prefixing the pronoun I to that combination. 3. By 
interplacing own between the possessive pronoun and self. 4. By 
prefixing the personals, thou and he, to possessives and self. 

FIRST PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. Siugular. Plural. 

N. — Myself, Ourselves, Imyself, Weourselves. 

p. — ; , 

O. Myself, Ourselves, 

N. — Myownself, Ourownselves, 

p. , , 

O. — Myownself, Ourownselves, 

SECOND PERSON. 

Singular. Plural. 

N. — Thyself, Yourselves, 



Memyself, Usourselves. 
Irnyownself, Weourownselves, 



Memyownself, Usourownselves, 



P.- 



O. — Thyself Yourselves, 
N.— Thouthyself, 



O.— Theethyself, 

N. — Thouthyownself, 

p. , 

O — Theethyownself. 



Thouthyself, Youyourselves, or 
Yeyourselves, 



Theethyself, Youyourselves, 
Youyourselves, 



Youoyurselves, 
Youyourownselves. 

Youyourownselves. 

THIRD PERSON. 



M. F. 

( Nom. — Hisself, Herself, 

Sing. < Pos. , , , 

I Obj. Himself, Herself, 

C N. — Theirselves, Theirselves, 

P*». {.P.-. .", , 

I O. — Themselves, Themselves, 

C Nom. — Hehisself, Sheherself 

Sing. < Pos. , , 

( Obj. Himhimself Sheherself, 



N. 

Itself, 

Itself, 
Theirselves, 

Themselves. 
Ititself, 



Ititself, 



( N. — Theytheirselves, Theytheirselves, Theytheirselves, 

p*«. <p— ,. , , 

\ O. — Tehythemselves, Theythemselves, Theythemselves, 

/ Nom. — Hisownself, Herownself, Itsownself 

Sing. < Pos. , ,......., 

( Obj. Hisownself, Herownself, Itsownself, 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 3* 

M. F. N. 

N. — Theirownselves, Theirownselves, Theirownselves, 



\o.— 



Plu. 

-Theirownselves, Theirownselves, Theirownselves, 

( Nom. — Hehisownself, Sheherownself, Ititsownself, 
StngJPos. , , , 

( Obj. Himhisownself,Herherownself, Ititsownself. 

fN. — Theytheirownselvea, Theytheirownselves, They theirownselves 
Plu.\?.— , 

[O. — Themtheirownselves,ThemtheirownseIves r Themtlieirownselves 

The compound pronouns should always be joined together in writing, 
except in poetry, for harmony of measure. The compositions of pronouns 
renders them very emphatical, and at the same time, adds greatly to the 
strength and elegance of the language. 

„ § 4. OF RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A relative refers to a noun previously used, which is called the 
antecedent. They are who, that, what, as and than. 

The personals are, in fact, relative substitutes, that is, they stand for 
nouns previously used. But the relatives are used in a closer and more 
familiar connexion with their nouns, than the personals. And the relatives 
often refer to the personals, as their antecedents. 

Which has generally been called a relative ; but it is not a radical t^ m. 
being only the neuter gender of who. Some have supposed that that has 
usurped the place of who. But the truth is the reverse. Who was 
anciently an interrogative term, and that the regular relative pronoun. In 
course of time, who has lost its interrogatory character, except in a few 
instances, and has taken the place of that ; so that we have now two per- 
sonal relatives. That, latterly, by elegant writers, is confined to the neuter 
gender, except when the relative refers to nouns of three different genders 
and then that is the proper relative to be used, because it being the same, 
in all the genders, we perceive no impropriety in referingit to nouns of 
different genders, which we cannot with propriety, do with who. If the 
masculine and feminine are associated, who is the proper relative. 



DECLENSION OF THE RELATIVES. 

Singular. Plural. 

M. F. N. 
Nom. — Who, who, which. 
Poss. — Whose, whose, whose. 
Obj. — Whom, whom, whom. 



M. F. N. 

Who, who, which. 

Whose, whose, whose. 

Whom, whom, which. 



Who was anciently used in the objective, ibut is not latterly, by good 
writers and speakers. 

Nom. — That, that, that. 

Poss. 

Obj. — That, that, that, 

What, that, as, and than, are declined like that, being the same, in all the 
genders, cases and numbers. That, as and^than, have been generally con- 



That, that, that. 
That, that, that. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sidered to be conjunctions, and sometimes adverbs. They are always pro- 
nouns, either relative, or adjective, and are incapable of use, as conjunc- 
tions. The source of all the difficulty is that teachers have not paid a 
proper attention to the elipsis attending these words. If they had been 
conjunctions, they would have been of the imperative mood of some ob- 
solete verbs, probably in the Gothic or Saxon. Tn the Saxon, it was writ- 
ten thaet, theat. It is the past participle of the Gothic verb thihan, to 
take, or assume. The same verb, in the Saxon is thicgan, or thigan 

It and that always refer to some thing or things, person or persons, taken, 
assumed, or spoken of before ; such being the meaning of these two words. 
They were anciently written in both numbers and applied to persons and 
things. 2, Took, 49. 

As is a primitive word in the old Gothic, our mother tung, and is always 
a pronoun, and generally a relative, sometimes adjective. And, whenever 
used, is much the same as it, that, or which. In the Gothic it Was written 
sa, and we have reversed the position of the letters, and retained the sense. 
In the German, it is written es. In sentences like the following, as has 
generally been called a conjunction : as "It looks, as if it would rain." As 
here refers to it, and it is used in nature of a noun in the neuter gender, 
and is a substitute for the noun weather. The weather looks as, &c. 

"John looks as well as James." That is, John is that good looking per- 
son that James is. It represents the subject matter, to wit, the relative 
looks of John and James. 

" To see thee so, as I have seen thee in the sanctuary," i. e. to see thee 
that person, whom I have, &c. 

The reason that as, has been called a conjunction and sometimes an ad- 
qi A is, because it elegantly omits the verb, which cannot be done if we 
use the relative which. It is one of the most expressive and eliptical 
words, we have in the language. 

As often contains both the antecedent and relative; as "you practice as 
you have been taught." 

As a term of contrast, or comparison, it always means equality: as 
"John is as good a boy as James." " I can go as well as you," i. e. in the 
same degree that John is a good boy, James is. In the same well degree 
that you can go, I can. In all cases of the double use of as, the first is 
used as an adjective or demonstrative pronoun, and the second as a rela- 
tive. The pronoun so, is sometimes associated with as : as "to see thee so 
[i. e. such a person, or being,] as I have seen thee in the sanctuary. 

I remark further, as to using that and as occasionally as conjunctions, 
that if they can, in any case, be so used, they, in those cases, fall, at once, 
into the family of verbs. For this, I presume that no one would contend. 
"As thy days, so shall thy strength be." 

What is always an abstract term including, within itself, the antecedent 
and relative, except when used as an interrogative. It is said to be a com- 
pound of two ancient words, in the Gothic, or Saxon ; but those words 
have not been given, and I have not been able to trace them out, therefore, 
Lean not give the etymology. 

1. It is the nominative after a neuter verb, and the object of an active 
verb: as "this is what I wanted." 

2. It is the object of two active verbs : as^ " may I not do what I will 
with my own? " 

3. It is the nominative after one nenter verb, and the nominative to a 
passive verb : as "this is what was given tome." 

4. It is the object of an active verb and the nominative to a neuter verb • 
as "I will do what is right." 

5. It is the object of a preposition, and the nominative to a neuter verb : 
as " for what was it intended ? " 

6. It is some times absolute before the infinitive ; as "if you wish tohav* 
it you must give instructions^ what to do," 



ETYMOLOGY. 27 

The second declension forms the possessive by adding is to the 
nominative singular, making an additional syllable, in all cases, 
and ought so always to be written. 

Sing. - Flu. 

Nom Fish, Fishes, 

Pos Fishis, Fishes' 

Obj Fish, Fishes. 

No obscurity can happen from writing this class of nouns, as we pro- 
nounce them, for the possessive singular is written is, and all the plural ca- 
ses are written es. 

The above are exactly the forms, in which the English nouns are used in 
their formation, in common speech, and have been probably for several hun- 
dred years. If the literati will not, in their written language, adopt the 
forms, which themselves and the common people constantly use, without 
any deviation, from day to day, in their spoken language, they must still go 
on, in their obstinacy, and scandalize and abuse, instead of systemizinsr and 
ornamenting their own native tongue, and still continue to use but one de- 
clension. 

If others should see fit to adobt and use the second declension, they will 
observe that the i is short and the s soft like z, which will be sure to pre- 
vent any mistake as to the case, or sound of the letters, 

§ 8. OF PERSON. 

Nouns have three persons. 

1. The person speaking is always of the first person, and is 
called the agent, being designated by the pronoun I, expressed or 
understood, as "I love, I am." 

2. When a call, address, salutation, or command is made, the 
person, or thing called r &c, is of the second person, and is desig- 
nated by the pronoun thou, ye or you, expressed, or understood, 
as "Thou Lord, come ye, hear thou me." 

3. Any person, or thing spoken of, and all subjects of discourse 
are of the third person and designated by the pronoun he, ex- 
pressed or understood, as " he loves, the sun shines." 

I have named I, thou and he, as the pronouns designating the three per- 
sons, the others being only the variation of these, in the different cases, 
numbers, persons and genders. Some Gf our nouns are original, and 
some derivative. 1. Original: as horse, ox, cow, wood, stone. 2. Deriva- 
tive : of this class are all those, that are taken from the third person of 
verbs, and the participles. 3. All the third class are those, that are made 
by composition, as sawmill, hansaw, millmen, &c. We have many nouns 
formed, by adding the Gothic, Saxon and Latin terminations, er, wer, ar, 
var, ver and mr, which in those tongues ment a man, as love?-, giver, law- 
yer, stranger, fyc 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

CHAPTER III. 

OF PRONOUNS. 

§ 1. OF THE PRONOUNS GENERALLY AND THEIR USE. 

A pronoun is a word used instead of a noun to avoid too fre- 
quent repetition of the same word, as "my brother was here yes- 
terday, and he is gone home." 

Pronouns are divisible into four kinds : personal, relative, pos- 
sessive and adjective. 

Some grammarians object to this classification, holding that the relative, 
possessive and adjective pronouns are in fact all adjectives, and should be 
all referred to and treated of under the head of adjectives. But they would 
then require to be explained, in the same manner as here ; therefore I can 
see no good reason for the change. And, after all, they have more of the 
pronoun nature, than of the adjective. And a great majority of writers and 
teachers, have adopted, and prefer this classification 



§ 2.. 



OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



We have three personal pronouns in the English language : I, - 
Thou, He. 

Grammarians have generally reconed eight, I, we, thou, ye or you, he, 
she, it and they. We might as well recon all the different, numbers, gen- 
ders and persons, which would make thirty. The fact is, the nominative 
singular is the standard, by which to recon their numbers, for all the other 
forms of the pronouns are only the different cases, numbers and genders of 
those pronouns. Those three pronouns are probably not all primitive 
words, in our language. / is derived either from ego, Greek, or from the 
same parent stock, in the Gothic, or old Tutonic. In the old English it 
was written ick, or ig. In the progress of time, the ch and g were dropped 
and the I retained. It is undoubtedly the same word originally as the 
Greek and Latin ego. Mine, in the possessive is probably original in the 
Gothic and Saxon, or corrupted from the Latin mens. Our objective me 
is the same as the accusative in the Latin or Greek. . Whether we 
have borrowed and adopted it from the Greek, or that those three lan- 
guages have all received it from the Tutonic and Gothic I am not able to 
determine. In the plural, the nominative we and possessive ours, are prob- 
ably primitive in our language. Our objective us I suppose to be a contrac- 
tion of ours by dropping the o and r, or of the Latin nos, o§, us. 

I am unable to determine if thou is primitive in the Saxon and Gothic, or 
derived to us from the Greek, through the Latin. The Greeks wrote it sit 
and the Latins tu. Our possessive thine 1 am inclined to think is a con- 
traction of thou and am, or imi, Greek, which is the same word. The ob- 
jective thee is probably the Greek se brought* into the Latin te, or primitive 
in the Gothic aud Saxon. The plural ye or you, is probably either a cor- 
ruption of the Latin vos, or primitive from the Gothic and Saxon. The 
possessive, ours is probably primitive. 

He and she are probably primitives. The possessive his prooaKy a 
contraction of he and is. Hers her are probably primitive. Him is the old 
Saxon and Gothic hem, which, till within a few hundred years was used in- 
discriminately for him and them. It, in the neuter, formerly written kit, in 
the English, and in the Saxon and Gothic, kit, hyt and het, or licet, and is 
the past participle of the Gothic verb, haitan, or hsetan, and means a thing 



ETYMOLOGY. 25 

those terminations into, vis: as, loaf, loaves ; icifc, wives', staff, staves. To 
this rule are some exceptions; grief, griefs; sheriff, sheriffs, &c. 

4. The singular ending in y, preceded by a consonant, the plural is form- 
ed by changing y into ies, as assembly, assemblies, &c. This is the modern 
formation. ~ The old English had all these words ending in ie, and then the 
plurals were formed by adding s, according to rule 1. 

When y is preceded by a vowel, rule first applies, as attorney, attorneys 
key, keys; delay, delays. 

5. Some nouns form the plural by changing a to c, as man, men. But 
most nouns of this spelling form their plurals by rule first, as flan, plans. 

6. Some nouns form their plurals, by adding en, or ren, as brother, breth- 
ren ; child, children. Brother also conforms to rule first, as Brothers. 

7. Some nouns form their plurals, by changing 00, into ee, as foot, feet ; 
tooth, teeth. And some nouns, in 00, conform to rule first, as boot, boots. 

8. Some nouns ending in ouse make their plurals by changing that into 
ice, as mouse, mice. And some conform to rule first, as house, houses. 

9. Some nouns ending in ic form their plurals by interplacing c between 
i and e, as Die, [to play with] dice. Some conform to rule first : as die, 
dies, to coin with. 

10. Some nouns form the plural, by changing ny into ce, as penny pence. 

11. Some nouns form their plurals, by changing ow into ine, as coic, kine. 
K is used in the plural, because c is soft before i. Rule first also applies 
here, as cow, cows. Kine is probably become obsolete, especially in Amer- 
ica, except as an adjective, as kine pock. In the old English, kine was the 
plural of ky. Kye is still used in Scotland, for cattle. Cardell, § 63. 

12. Nouns of latin origin and of the masculine gender, ending in us, 
form the plural, by changing us into i, as stimulus, stimuli. Those ending 
in us, in the neuter gender, form the plural, by changing us into era, as 
genus, genera. 

13. Nouns of Greek origin in the nuter, form the plural, by changing on 
into a, as phenomenon, phenomena. 

14. Nouns of Hebrew origin form the plural, by adding im to the singular, 
as seraph, seraphim. And sometimes rule first is applied, as seraphs, cher- 
ubs. 

Though these rules are all liable to exceptions, they probably embrace all 
the various ways of forming the plurals in our language. 

§ 6, OF CASE. 

English substantives have three cases : the nominative, posses- 
sive and objective. 

Case, in Grammar, has two definitions. 1. The varying of the termina- 
tions of declinable words. 2. the different relations, in which declinable 
words stand to each other. Much controversy has been among Gramma- 
rians, for many ages, concerning the cases of English nouns, which has all 
been for want of a proper definition. I shall only observe that the pronouns 
personal have the three cases by termination. This being admitted, it is im- 
possible for a substitute to hdve and occupy a place, which the principal 
cannot. I consider that a great majority of writers and 1 teachers are so well 
.agreed, in the adoption and use of the three cases, that argument would be 
wholly useless. 

Nouns, in all their different branches, to wit, notnvpronoun, article, ad- 
jective and adverb, are declinable ; but the adverb is only used in the objec- 
tive singular, neuter gender. Nouns and pronouns are the only parts of 
speech which vary in their terminations in the different cases, numbers and 
genders. 

1. The nominative case expresses the agent of the verb, or the 
person or thing acting, as, "I learn, thou readest, he plays." 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

2. The possessive case expresses propriety or possession, and 
is formed by the addition of s to the nominative separated by an 
apostrophe, as " John's house. ,; 

Cardell, Essay § i24, says the noun, in the possessive^ is only a mode of 
distinguishing one thing by its relation to another, and is always an adjective, 
by use. This is measurably true, but not in the true sense to the extent he 
would represent it. Taken in the sense in which he represents it, it would 
measurably resolve all the different parts of speech, into adjectives, because 
all are, more or less, adjective of, or qualifying each other. He seems to 
have overlooked the great principle of language, the minute and close rela- 
tionship between all words used, in speech, of intercommunication with, 
and explanation of each other. And language would have no elegance, 
beauty, nor charm, without it. He seems also in a measure to have over- 
looked the design and use of the possessive case and possessive pronouns, 
which do not relate, at all, to the adjective meaning of words, but 
merely to the mechanical construction of speech. Language, consid- 
ered in its grammatical form, is as purely mechanical, as a house, or 
chaise, and in all well settled and organized languages, is reducable to rules 
as perfectly simple, exact and certain, as mechanics or mathematics. And 
the only reason why the English language has lain so long, in so rude and 
unsettled a state, is, that this particular branch of the language has, by our 
grammarians, been neglected, 

When the nominative ends in ss, the apostrophe is added without the s, 
as, " goodness' sake. The s added to the nominative with an apostrophe is 
only a contraction of the possessive case of the pronoun he, i. e., his, and 
formerly the pronoun was used, as, God his grace. But as we now write it, 
God's grace, the s is combined with the noun, and the whole makes but one 
syllable. But if the s makes an additional syllable, it should be added, 
and the i ought also to be retained, so that the spelling might conform to the 
pronunciation, and the apostrophe omitted, as, " the foxis cunning." All 
other languages,so far as I know, write all the letters, which are pronounced, 
Our poor English, which has been made a begger and an outcast, especially 
by the English iterati, has always been abused, in this and various other 
ways. 

Although we have bat these two forms of the possessive,by termination, we 
have another mode of expressing possession, by the use of the preposition 
of, in the objective case, as, u by the grace of God." No other preposition 
is used in this way, and no other is capable of use, because of is the only 
preposition signifying offspring, extraction, or hereditary relationship. See 
preposition of 

3. The objective case is placed after the verb, or preposition, 
by which it is governed, being the object, on which they respec- 
tively act, as " John loves study ;" " he came from the country." 

§7. OF THE DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 

The English nouns seem naturally to class themselves into two 
declensions. The first declension forms the possessive case, sin- 
gular, by the addition of s to the nominative, separated by an 
apostrophe. And, in some words, by the use of the apostrophe, 
without the s. 

FIRST DECLENSION. 

Sing. Plu. Sing. 

Nom Lord, Lords, Goodness, 

Poss Lord's, Lords', Goodness', 

Obj Lord, Lcrds. Goodness. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 47 

into these forms, in the course of time, in the formation of these adverbs, 
and 1 am inclined to believe that they are. 

But, in some cases, seems to be an adverb, as 1 have but [only] one dollar. 

The name adverb, is the natural inference of its use ; a word added, or as- 
sociated with a verb. This was probably the first use of an adverb, and 
gradually extended its use and influence to other parts of speech. 

Adverbs are often used as terms of interrogation, as well as other parts 
of speech, as, "How is your health to-day?" "Where are you going?" 
"When will you return?" It is a mistaken notion that pronouns only are 
interrogative. Most of the other parts of speech, according to the circum- 
stances of the case, more or less partake somewhat of the interrogative 
character. 



CHAPTER VII 

OF VERBS 

§ 1. OF THE NATURE AND NAMES OF THE VERES. 

A verb is a word, signifying action, passion, or being. 

1st, They are primarily divided into regular, irregular, and defective. 

2d. All verbs, which make the imperfect tense and the perfect participle 
active, by adding d, or ed, or its contraction t to the radical verb, are es- 
teemed regular. v 



Pres. 


Imp. 


Per. part. 


Love, 


Loved, 


Loved. 


Lift, 


Lifted, 


Lifted. 


Bless, 


Blessed, 


Blessed. 


5 


Blest, 


Blest. 



Note. Took, vol. 1. p. 208. sa.ys that od was the Saxon termination for 
the regular past participles, which, in the English, is written ed. He 
does not give the etymology of the termination, but it was probably the 
contraction of some otfter verb added, as a termination. In the English, our 
regular perfect partciples are the contraction of the imperfect tense of the 
Yevb,do; Do, did, done. And it is very remarkable that the pronunciation 
of this distinctive termination is, uniformly, among all classes, id and not 
ed as, loved, granted, conveyed. And to write it ed and pronounce it id 
is a very strange impropriety. When we use it as a prefix, we write it as 
we pronounce it, I did love. When we add it, as a termination, it is the 
same word, except that we drop the first d, as I loved. And what is strang- 
er still, itis not very far back, in the language that it. was written id as 
much if not more, as it was ed. And why e against the constant and uni- 
form pronunciation, usurped the place of i, is wholly unaccountable. 

The termination in th, or eth, in our verbs, in the indicative singular in 
the third person, is the contraction of our verb do, which is doth or doeih, 
in the third person singular. The termination, in st or est, in the second 
person singular, I suppose to be est, the third person singular of the latin 
verb sum, which is our verb am, as love, lovest, loveth, or loves. The 
termination es, in the third person singular, in the indicative, I suppose to 
be the corruption of our verb is, by changing i to e. The imperfect tense, 
in the indicative, third person singular, in all our regular verbs, is made by 
the affix ed, which is the corruption of our verb, did 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

En used as a termination, to a part of our irregular perfect partciples, 
is the contraction of doen ; the perfect participles, of do, anciently so writ- 
ten, which we now write done, or from give, given, as the sense may be. 

Some have supposed that all our verbs are regular, which have the im- 
perfect tense and the perfect participle alike, though different from the pres- 
ent tense. But this opinion has not been adopted by our best grammarians. 

II. All verbs, which form not the imperfect tense and perfect partciple 
active, in d, or ed, or its contraction t, are irregular. 

1. Those having the present tense, the imperfect tense; and perfect 
participle active all alike, as; 

Pres. Imp. Perf. Part. 

Cost, Cost, Cost. 

2. Those having the imperfect tense, and perfect participle active alike, 
but different from the present tense, as, 

Pres. Imp. Perf. Part. 

Abide, Abode, Abode. 

Feed, Fed, Fed. 

3. Those having the present and imperfect tenses, and the perfect parti- 
ciple active all different, as, 

Pres. Imp. Perf. Part. 

Arise, Arose, Arisen. 

4. Those having the present tense and perfect participle active alike, but 
different from the imperfect tense, as, 

Pres. Imp. Perf. Part. 

Come, Came, Come. 

That inflution of the verb, which determines it to be regular, or irregu- 
lar, is called its formation. 

That inflution, which carries the verb through the moods, tenses, num- 
bers and persons, is called its conjugation. 

Five things belong to verbs; Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and 
Persons. 

III. Defective verbs are those wanting some of the voices, moods, 
tenses, numbers, or persons. 

They are personal, first personal, and third personal. 

1 . The personals are those wanting some of the voices, moods and ten- 
ses; but having the different numbers and persons, as, 

Active voice, Indicative mood, Present tense. 

Sin. I ought, Thou oughtest, or ought, He ought. 
Plu.We ought, Ye or you ought, They ought. 
As, I ought to go now, &c. 

IMPERFECT TENSE' 

Sin. I ought, Thou oughtest, or ought, He ought. 
Plu. We ought, Ye, or you ought, They ought. 
As, "I ought to have gone yesterday!" 



ORTHOGRAPHY. _ 45 

2. By associating quite with the positive; as "It is quite hot." 

3. By associating far with the comparative ; as " This is far better than 
that." Afar more exceeding and eternal weight of glory." And some- 
times the preposition, by, is associated with far ; as " Cicero was, by far, 
elftquentor, than Cato." In such cases, far is used as a noun. 

4. By using an adverb with the positive; as "An exceedingly great re- 
ward-" " Very fine weather." " His case is extremely dangerous." 
The use of the adverb, with the positive, has, by many, been considered to 
note the superlative degree; but it does not yet seem to be settled either 
way. Although these are very strong expressions, still I think they properly 
belong to the positive degree, for it would create great confusion, in our 
adjectives, to cary all such forms into the superlative. In all the degrees 
of comparison, we occasionally use associations of terms, which seem to go 
beyond the common meaning of the degree used, and still we cannot go 
out of the regular comparison, in applying the rules of syntax In the 
superlrtive degree, we ofton have expressions of such strength and force, as 
seem to go vastly beyond the ordinary notions of that degree, and still we 
have no other to use. 

5. By associating a great deal, with the comparative and superlative ; as 
"Lead is a great deal heavier than feathers." " John is a great deal the . 
best boy." 

6. By associating much with the comparative; as "Peter is a much 
better boy than John." When more than two are intended to be compared 
the superlative is proper; as "James is much the best scholar in his class. 

7. By associating very much with the positive ; as " She is very much 
beloved." 

8. By associating than with the comparitive ; as " Gold is richer than 
silver." 

9. By associating as with the positive, we express an exact equality ; as 
"John is as tall as James." In such cases the adjective is used in nature of 
a noun; as John is that tall man that James is. 

10. Again is sometimes taken into the association with as, and just doub- 
les the meaning of the adjective; as "This appears as large again as that." 

11. By associating too with the positive, we imply the comparative; as 
"He is too careless an author." 

Qualities, which come under the idea of attributes and measured quanti- 
ties, can never be defined exactly, nor their gradation of comparison exact- 
ly ascertained. And if it could, would so burden language, with terms, as 
to introduce a greater inconvenience, than it would remed}^. As they are, 
they are sufficiently certain for common use. In measured quantities, the 
subject being certain, the comparison is also; as "A foot is twelve times as 
long as an inch." 



CHAPTER VI- 

OF ADVERBS. 

§ 1. OF THE MATURE AND USE OF ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word associated with a verb, participle, adjective, 
or another adverb to express its quality, or circumstance, as "He 
reads well/' " A truly goo:I man." 

The general division of adverbs is into qualifying and circumstantial. A 
qualifying adverb is always associated with some other parts of speech to 
qualify it. As, "He reads elegantly." A circumstantial adverb never 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

qualifies, but explains, and is always the member of a compound sentence. 
As, "He is, therefore, [for that reason] happy." 

§ 2. OF THE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Though adverbs are generally simple terms, some have the three degrees 
of comparison, which are formed by r, er, orst, est, to the positive degreee, 
or by the help of more, and most, and less and least, prefixed to the positive. 

Pos. Com. Sup. 

Soon, Sooner, Soonest. 

Wisely, Wisher, Wisliest. (&) 

(a) And this is the old pure English form. 

§ 3. OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ADVERBS. 

1. Of number: once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of order: firstly, secondly, &c. 

3. Of place : here, there, where, &c. 

4. Of time: now, when, henceforth, hereafter, then, once, twice,thrice. 

5. Of quality: wisely, foolishly, &c. 

6. Of manner: upwards, downwards, &c. 

7. Of doubt: perhaps, peradventure, &c. 

8. Of Affirmation : verily, truly, yes, yea, &c. 

9. Of negation : no, not, nay, &c. 

10. Of Interrogation : why, how, wherefore, &c. 

Adverbs seem to have been contrived mostly to save the repetition of 
nouns, by comprising, in one word, what otherwise, would require several. 
In this respect, they are a great elegance, neatness and perspicuity, in com- 
position. As, "He acted wisely " i. e. with wisdom. "He did it here," 
i. e. in this place. "He came often," i. e. many times. 

We have two rules, by which to know when any word is an adverb: 1. 
If it qualifies an adjective, verb, participle, or another adverb : 2. If it be 
resolvable into a simple sentence, as "He is, therefore, happy. 

The nature of an adverb is this : it is a noun in the neuter gender, sin- 
gular number, objective case, with or without a preposition, as the case 
may be. That is, it may be or not governed by a preposition, or may 
be absolute in the objective, without p preposition. Or in the nominative 
with a participle. R. 55, Syntax. 

The principal part of our adverbs are qualifying, made by adding ly to 
some other part of speech: as, good, goodly, swift, swiftly. Ly is only the 
contraction of like. And like is still used with some words, as Godlike, 
Devillike, Fiendlike. The Old English was lyche. 

We have many words, which are changed to adverbs by perfixing a ; the 
corruption of the Gothic preposition, on, our, in : as, aside ; aboard, ahead &c. 

The adverbs once, twice, thrice, are probably peculiar to our language, 
no other language having corresponding corruptions, by which to translate 
them. 

Once, anciently written anes, anis, any, ones, and onys. . These various 
forms were merely the different forms of the possessive case of the Saxon 
adjective ane, or an. If we take our form once, from anes, or ones, the 
transition is a very small alteration to be made, in the lapse of time, from 
the Saxon, through the old English to our modern English. 

Twice, from twai, Gothic; twa, tweg, twig, Saxon, is a very natural and 
easy corruption of the Gothic adjective, twai, twi, twice. It is also our ad- 
jective two. 

The Saxon adjective, thri, or thry, in running thro' the old English, has 
become our adjective there, and adverb, thrice (aj 

Perhaps the noun time and the verb se z are both, more or less mutilated 

(a) And also cur noun, trice, i. e, the time in whish one can count three. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 41 

Y or ly is the contraction of our adjective like, and always adds to the 
noun the idea of likeness, or similiarity, as godly, godlike. 

Full is derived from the verb to fill, and always adds its own meaning to 
the noun, to which it is added, as useful, 

Ous, or ious is from the Greek noun, hichus, meaning force, strength, or 
power. Adjectives with this termination always add that idea. As vicious 
means vice strengthened. This termination is made by dropping the h 
and ch, and interplacing o. It comes to us probably through the latin 
language. But the o does not belong to the termination, neither upon the 
principles of the Greek, Latin, nor English spelling. It probably crept in- 
to the English through the Norman French, and ought to be expunged 
entirely from the language, as a badge of national degradation. 

Ial, or al is used as a termination, in a few words derived from the Latin, 
and is a contraction of the Latin adjective talis, like, and always adds the 
idea of likeness, as potential, celestial, powerlike, heavenlike, national. 

Ive, or live, or -drive, signify aptness and carry that idea with them when 
added to a noun. And they are, in fact, all one' termination. Took says 
they come from the latin, but gives no etymology, and as I am not able to 
satisfy myself of their etymology, I shall not attempt to give any. 

And after all, I am inclined to believe that these terminations, to whatev- 
er adjectives applied are the contraction of our verb give, because^they 
always more or less add the sense of giving to the adjectives, to which 
they are added; as persuasive, supplicative, intuative, invitive, and that 
the various ways of spelling are adapted to the harmony of sound, with the 
different words, with which they are associated. 

Some is a term of distribution, in inself, used in composition, means qual- 
ity or usefulness ; as wholesome, blithsome, venturesome, <&c. 

Les, or less, is the imperative of the Saxon verb, lesan, lisan, lysan, 
to undo, unload, to liberate. It has always a negative use, when applied to 
nouns to change frhem to adjectives ; as reckless, heartless, childless, name- 
less, &c. 

Ish added to nouns, signifies effect, or operation ; and applied to adjectives 
signifies diminution ; as slavish, roundish, blackish, &c. I have not been 
able to satisfy myself of its etymology, and so I give none. 

Ble* able, and ible, are probably derived from the Gothic noun Abal, wood, 
and signifies strength, effect, power ; as blamable, sensible, navigable, &c. 

An is probably a contraction of the noun man, added as a termination to 
nouns ; as i^merican, European, Christian. 

Ese, in some few instances, is added as a national designation 
as Genoese, Chinese, &c. I am not certain of the origin of this 
termination. It is possible that it may come from esse, the infinitive of the 
latin substantive verb sum, and I am inclined to think that it is ; for i 
seems to add to the noun the idea of being, or existence. 

Ic is probably the contraction of the Greek noun hichus, for all words, 
with that termination, signify strength, energy and effect; ematic, cathartic, 
drastic, &c. 

he, or He, or tile. These terminations are affixed to many of our adject- 
ives ; but I have not been able to find the etymology of them, and so I have 
not attempted to give any 

One has been generally classed with the adjectives, and adjective pro- 
nouns, and the reason given is, because it is frequently used alone, as a 
Substitute for a noun. This is a very common use of adjectives in all lan- 
. guages. It is simply a numeral adjective. So of all and many, they are 
always adjectives, though frequently used as substitutes. One is used in 
both numbers. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

DECLENSION OF ADJECTIVES. 



s 


mgular, 






Plural. 


M. 


F. 


JY. 


M. 


F. JY. 


Norn.— One, 


one, 


one, 


Ones, 


ones, ones. 


Poss. — One's, 


one's, 


one's. 


Ones', 


ones', ones . 


Obj.— One, 


one, 


one. 


Ones, 


ones, ones. 



When one is used as a substitute, it is declined after this manner. When 
used as a numeral, it is declined as the other qualifying adjectives are. 

All our numeral adjectives have this peculiarity of form, in declension, 
when used as substitutes. When used simply as numerals^ they are de- 
clined like the other qualifying adjectives, without variation in the differ- 
ent cases, genders and numbers. 

Singular. Plural* 



M. F. JY. 

Good, good, good. 

Good, good, good. 

Good, good, good. 



M. F. JY. 

Nom. — Good, good, good. 

Poss. — Good, good, good. 

Obj. — Good, good, good. 

All our qualifying adjectives are declined like good. 

§ 2. OF THE COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

We have four degrees oi comparison applied to English adjectives ; the 
diminutive, positive, compantive und superlative. 

1 . The diminutive represents the quality, or circumstance in a dimin- 
ished, or less state, than the positive, and is known by the addition of the ter- 
mination ish to the positive state, as blackish, &c. 

2. The positive degree represents the simple or natural state, degree or 
quality, having no particular termination, as black. 

3. The comparitive degree increases, or lessons the positive degree, 
and is known by the addition of r or cr to the positive, or by prefixing more 
or less ; as wiser, more wiser, less wiser. 

4. The superlative degree represents the quality or circumstance in its 
greatest or least condition, and is known by the addition of st or est to the 
positive state, or by prefixing most, or least, or by adding them as termina- 
tions, as 

Dim. Pos. Com. * Sup. 

Longish, Long, Longer, Longest. 



Happy, Happier, Happiest. 

, , More happy, Most happy. 

, ■ , Less happy, Least happy. 

Most of our adjectives of more than one sylable are compared by prefix- 
ing more and less to the comparative, and most and least to the positive. 
Pos. Com. Sup. 
Excellent, more excellent, most excellent. 
, less excellent, least excellent^ 

The terminations r and er, st and est, have generally heen supposed to 
be the contraction of more and most. This is a mistake. We have them 
directly from our mother language, the Saxon, where they werewritten 
mere and mozst, having the same meaning. How, or when they were in the 
English, changed to more and most, I am unable to state. These termna- 
tions, with some variations and modifications have formed the terminations 
of the degrees of comparison in all the European languages, and probably 
had a common origin, in the Gothic verb mo, to increase, Our verb mo or 
mow to cut grass &c, is the same word. 

We might render our comparison of adjectives much more harmoneous 
and agreeable in sound, by dropping these Saxon terminations, which are 
ungraceful in utterance, and adopting our own english forms of more and 
most contracted, by dropping the m and e in the comparitive, and m and t in 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 43 

the superlative. We might then elegantly compare all our adjectives of 
any number of syllables, by the regular terminations ; as 



Pos. 
Honorable, 
Benevolent, 
Facticious, 
Adventicious, 



Com. 
Honorablor, 
Benevolentor, 
Facticiousor, 
Adventiciousor, 



Sup. 
Honorablos. 
Benevolentos. 
Facticiousos, 
Adventiciousos. 



The old method of comparison was undoubtedly by adding the termina- 
tions to the positive. The reason for omiting the termination, and using 
more and most, and less and least, as prefixes with adjectives of more than 
one syllable, probably has been the bad taste, which has prevailed, in the 
English latterly, of taking the accent and half accent from the last syllable 
and last but one of words of three or more syllables, and throwing those 
accents towards the beginning of words, which has rendered the pronunci- 
ation feeble and indistinct. 

If the forms of comparison above proposed could be adopted into the 
English and used, it would give us a greater variety of adjective termina- 
tions, and forms of comparison than any other language, which would give 
a very great scope to poetry and oratory, in the use of this class of words, 
a choice in the use of five different ways of comparing adjectives. 

§ 3. OF IRREGULAR ADJECTIVES. 

Caprice and custom, in all languages, have, more or less, gotten the bet- 
ter of analogy, aud rendered some words irregular. This has happened in 
some measure, to english adjectives, as 

Pos. Com. Sup. 

Well' 5 Better, Best. 

Formerly bet, better, beterest, bettermost. When good and well usurped 
the place of bet, I do not know. Bet is now only retained as a noun, mean- 
ing a wage?-. Our adjective good, and noun God, we have directly from 
the Persian Goda. 



Pos. 

Much, 
Many, 

Formerly mo, mo-er, mo-est. 
ed the place of mo. 

In, iner, 

Out, outer, 



Com. 



Sup. 
most. 



I do not know when ra^c^and mani/usurp- 



utter, 
outermost, 



inmost, 
outmost. 



inermost, 
utmost. 




Nether, 
Little, 



Com. 
former, 

wors.e, 
worse r, 

later, 
latter, 
upper, 
less, ^ 
lesser, \ 



Sup. 
first. 

worst, 
worst, 
latest, 
last, 
utter. 

least. 



Many is often improperly associated with the article, a, as " Full many a 
flower is born to blush unseen." Many in all such cases, is used as a noun 
of multitude singular. It should be a many of flowers. The word, num- 
ber, in all such cases, might be substituted for many. 

It is the past participle of the Gothic verb, Mengan tomiz, mingle, unite, 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

&c. It should be " a many of flowers," i. e. a number, or multitude of 
flowers. 

The principal cause of irregularity, in the adjectives, is that they change 
their spelling, for most of them observe the regular terminations. And the 
cause of this change is probably that the different degrees are made, by the 
adoption and use of different words, from different languages, which have 
now became obsolete, for we see clearly that that is the fact with many, 
more, most, as above explained. 

Some have supposed worser and lesser to be double comparatives, and 
corruptions. The truth is, these are the old pure forms, which have been 
contracted into worse and less, by the common principle and propensity of 
our language to dismiss sylables as much as possible. Took says, vol. 1, p. 
207, that less is from the Saxon verb, lesan, to unbind, dismiss, &c. He 
says lease and least are from the sirae verb, but says nothing about littte. 

§ 4. OF DEFECTIVE ADJECTIVES. 

They are such as want some of the degrees of comparison, as 
Pos. Com. Sup. 



Linin, 

Wooden, 

All 


under, 


undermost. 


? 




> 




'■ » 

superior, 
inferior, 




j 




J 

Eoual. 





All things adjectived have the positive only; as wooden, &c. 
Adjectives expressing the different colors have the diminuitive and posi- 
tive degrees only. 

Dim. Pos. Com. Sup. 

Whitish, white, , . 

Redish, red, , . 

Blackish, black, , . 

Blueish, blue, 1 — , . 

Some suppose that when two nouns are used together, the former is ail 
adjective ; as seafish, hansaw, horsecart, grinstone, &c. But the general 
and better opinion is, that they compound and make one word. And this is 
according to the settled principles of all refined languages, and the estab- 
lished and common usage of speech. The principle and practice of com- 
pounding words, and adjectiveing words is one of these resources, and is 
the only method of refining, improving and beautifying any language. 

Adjectives used in counting are called numerals ; as one, two, three, four, 
&c. Those used in numbering are called ordinal, as first, seeond, third, 
fourth fyc. 

All the adjectives, in the several degrees of comparison, whether regular, 
irregular or defective, are declined like good, through all the numbers, 
cases and genders. 

Besides the degrees of comparison, we have several ways of enlarging- 
modifying and restraining the comparitive sense of adjectives, which are, 
in some measure, peculiar to our language. 

1. By associating rather with the positive; as u He is rather tall," &c. 
Rather is sometimes improperly associated with the superlative degree, 
when two only are composed, or contrasted. In such cases, the compara- 
tive degree should always be used. But where more than two are com- 
pared or contracted, the superlative is proper. 

*This was probably written underest. The adjective neath was formerly 
compared, neyth, neyther, neytherest. 



ORTHOGRAPHY. 45 

2. By associating quite with the positive; as "It is quite hot." 

3. By associating far with the comparative ; as " This is far better than 
that." A far more exceeding and eternal weight of glory." And some- 
times the preposition, by, is associated with far ; as " Cicero was, by far, 
eloquentor, than Cato." In such cases, far is used as a noun. 

4. By using an adverb with the positive; as "An exceedingly great re- 
ward-" "Very fine weather." "His case is extremely dangerous." 
The use of the adverb, with the positive, has, by many, been considered to 
note the superlative degree ; but it does not yet seem to be settled either 
way. Although these are very strong expressions, still I think they properly 
belong to the positive degree, for it would create great confusion, in our 
adjectives, to cary all such forms into the superlative. In all the degrees 
of comparison, we occasionally use associations of terms, which seem to go 
beyond the common meaning of the degree used, and still we cannot go 
out of the regular comparison, in applying the rules of syntax In the 
superlrtive degree, we oflon have expressions of such strength and force, as 
seem to go vastly beyond the ordinary notions of that degree, and still we 
have no other to use. 

5. By associating a great deal, with the comparative and superlative ; as 
"Lead is a great deal heavier than feathers." " John is a great deal the 
best boy." 

6. "By associating much with the comparative ; as " Peter is a much 
better boy than John." When more than two are intended to be compared 
the superlative is proper; as "James is much the best scholar in his class. 

7. By associating very much with the positive ; as " She is very much 
beloved." 

8. By associating than with the comparitive: as "Gold is richer than 
silver." 

9. By associating as with the positive, we express an exact equality ; as 
"John is as tall as James." In such cases the adjective is used -in nature of 
a noun; as John is that tall man that James is. 

10. Again is sometimes taken into the association with as, and just doub- 
les the meaning of the adjective; as "This appears as large again as that." 

31. By associating too with the positive, we imply the comparative; as 
"He is too careless an author." 

Qualities, which come under the idea of attributes and measured quanti- 
ties, can never be defined exactly, nor their gradation of comparison exact- 
ly ascerta^ed. And if it could, would so burden language, with terms, as 
to introduce a greater inconvenience, than it would remedy. As they are, 
they are sufficiently certain for common use. In measured quantities, the 
subject being certain, the comparison is also; as "A foot is twelve times as 
long as an inch." 



CHAPTER VI- 

OF ADVERBS. 
§ 1. OP THE NATURE AND USE OF ADVERBS. 

An adverb is a word associated with a verb, participle, adjective, 
or another adverb to express its quality, or circumstance, as "He 
reads well," " A truly good man." 

The general division of adverbs is into qualifying and circumstantial. A 
qualifying adverb is always associated with some other parts of speech to 
qualify it. As, "He reads elegantly." A circumstantial adverb never 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

qualifies, but explains, and is always the member of a compound sentence. 
As, "He is, therefore, [for that reason] happy." 

§ 2. OF THE COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

Though adverbs are generally simple terms, some have the three degrees 
of comparison, which are formed by r, er, orst, est, to the positive degreee, 
or by the help of more, and most, and less and least, prefixed to the positive. 

Pos. Com. Sup. 

Soon, Sooner, Soonest. 

Wisely, Wislier, Wisliest. (a.) 

(a.) And this is the old pure English form. 

, § 3. OF THE VARIOUS KINDS OF ADVERBS. 

1. Of number: once, twice, thrice, &c. 

2. Of order: firstly, secondly, &c. 

3. Of place : here, there, where, &c. 

4. Of time : now, when, henceforth, hereafter, then, once, twice,thrice. 

5. Of quality: wisely, foolishly, &c. 

6. Of manner : upwards, downwards, &c. 

7. Of doubt; perhaps, peradventure, &c. 

8. Of Affirmation : verily, truly, yes, yea, <fce. 

9. Of negation: no, not, nay, &c. 

10. Of Interrogation : why, how, wherefore, &c. 

Adverbs seem to have been contrived mostly to save the repetition of 
nouns, by comprising, in one word, what otherwise, would require several. 
In this respect, they are a great elegance, neatness and perspicuity, in com- 
position. As, "He acted wisely " i. e. with wisdom. u He did it here," 
i. e. in this place. "He came often," i. e. many times. 

We have two rules, by which to know when any word is an adverb: 1. 
If it qualifies an adjective, verb, participle, or another adverb : 2. If it be 
resolvable into a simple sentence, as "He is, therefore, happy. 

The nature of an adverb is this : it is a noun in the neuter gender, sin- 
gular number, objective case, with or without a preposition, as the case 
may be. That is, it may be or not governed by a preposition, or may 
be absolute in the objective, without p preposition. Or in the nominative 
with a participle. R. 55, Syntax. 

The principal part of our adverbs are qualifying, made by adding ly to 
some other part of speech: as, good, goodly, swift, swiftly. Ly is only the 
contraction of like. And like is still used with some words, as Godlike, 
Devillike, Fiendlike. The Old English was lyche. 

We have many words, which are changed to adverbs by perfixing a ; the 
corruption of the Gothic preposition, on, our,in : as, aside ; aboard, ahead &c. 

The adverbs once, twice, thrice, are probably peculiar to our language, 
no other language having corresponding corruptions, by which to translate 
them. 

Once, anciently written anes, anis, any, ones, and onys. These various 
forms were merely the different forms of the possessive case of the Saxon 
adjective ane, or an. If we take our form once, from anes, or ones, the 
transition is a very small alteration to be made, in the lapse of time, from 
the Saxon, through the old English to our modern English. 

Twice, from twai, Gothic; twa, tweg, twig, Saxon, is a very natural and 
easy corruption of the Gothic adjective, twai, twi, twice. It is also our ad- 
jective two. 

The Saxon adjective, tliri, or thry, in running thro' the old English, has 
become our adjective there, and adverb, thrice (&) 

Perhaps the noun time and the verb se z are both, more or less mutilated 

(a) And also eurnoun, trice, i. e, the time in which one can count three. 



ORTHOGRAPHY 47 

into these forms, in the course of time, in the formation of these adverbs, 
and 1 am inclined to believe that they are. 

But, in some cases, seems to be an adverb, as 1 have but [only] one dollar. 

The name adverb, is the natural inference of its use ; a word added, or as- 
sociated with a verb. This was probably the first use of an adverb, and 
gradually extended its use and influence to other parts of speech. 

Adverbs are often used as terms of interrogation, as well as other parts 
of speech, as, "How is your health to-day?" "Where are you going?" 
"When will you return?" It is a mistaken notion that pronouns only are 
interrogative. Most of the other parts of speech, according to the circum- 
stances of the case, more or less partake somewhat of the interrogative 
character. 



§ 1. 



CHAPTER VII 

OF VERBS 

OF THE NATURE AND NAMES OF THE VERBS. 



A verb is a word, signifying action, passion, or being. 

1st, They are primarily divided into regular, irregular, and defective. 

2d. All verbs, which make the imperfect tense and the perfeet participle 
active, by adding d, or ed, or its contraction t to the radical verb, are es- 
teemed regular. 



Pres. 


Imp. 


Per. part 


Love, 


Loved, 


Loved. 


Lift, 


Lifted, 


Lifted. 


Bless, 


Blessed, 


Blessed. 


J » 


Blest, 


Blest. 



Note. Took, vol. 1. p. 208. says that od was the Saxon termination for 
the regular past participles, which, in the English, is written ed. He 
does not give the etymology of the termination, but it was probably the 
contraction of some other verb added, as a termination. In the English, our 
regular perfect partciples are the contraction of the imperfect tense of the 
verb, do; Do, did, done. And it is very remarkable that the pronunciation 
of this distinctive termination is, uniformly, among all classes, id and not 
ed as, loved, granted, conveyed. And to write it ed and pronounce it id 
is a very strange impropriety. When we use it as a prefix, we write it as 
we pronounce it, I did love. When we add it, as a termination, it is the 
same word, except that we drop the first d, as I loved. And what is strang- 
er still, it is not very far back, in the language that it was written id as 
much if not more, as it was ed. And why e against the constant and uni- 
form pronunciation, usurped the place of i, is wholly unaccountable. 

The termination in th, or eth, in our verbs, in the indicative singular in 
the third person, is the contraction of our verb do, which is doth or doeth, 
in the third person singular. The termination, in st or est, in the second 
person singular, I suppose to be est, the third person singular of the latin 
verb sum, which is our verb am, as lovej lovest, loveth, or loves. The 
termination es, in the third person singular, in the indicative, I suppose to 
be the corruption of our verb is, by changing i to e. The imperfect tense, 
in the indicative, third person singular, in all our regular verbs, is made by 
the affix ed, which is the corruption of our verb, did 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

En used as a termination, to a part of our irregular perfect partciples, 
is the contraction of doen ; the perfect participles, of do y anciently so writ- 
ten, which we now write done, or from give, given, as the sense may be. 

Some have supposed that all our verbs are regular, which have the im- 
perfect tense and the perfect participle alil^, though different from the pres- 
ent tense. But this opinion has not been adopted by our best grammarians. 

II. All verbs, which form not the imperfect tense and perfect partciple 
active, in d, or ed, or its contraction t, are irregular. 

1. Those having the present tense, the imperfect tense; and perfect 
participle g^tive all alike, as; 

Pres. Imp. Perf. Part. 

Cost, Cost, Cost. 

2. Those having the imperfect tense, and perfect participle active alike, 
but different from the present tense, as, 



Pres, 


Imp. 


Perf. Part 


Abide, 
Feed, 


Abode, 
Fed, 


Abode. 
Fed. 



3. Those having the present and imperfect tenses, and the perfect parti- 
ciple active all different, as, 

Pres. Imp. Perf. Part. 

Arise, Arose, Arisen. 

4. Those having the present tense and perfect participle active alike, but 
different from the imperfect tense, as, 

Pres. Imp. Perf. Part. 

Come, Came, Come. 

That inflution of the verb, which determines it to be regular, or irregu- 
lar, is called its formation. 

That inflution, which carries the verb through the moods, tenses, num- 
bers and persons, is called its conjugation. 

Five things belong to verbs; Voices, Moods, Tenses, Numbers, and 
Persons. 

III. Defective verbs are those wanting some of the voices, moods, 
. tenses, numbers, or persons. 

They are personal, first personal, and third personal. 

1 . The personals are those wanting some of the voices, moods and ten- 
ses; but having the different numbers and persons, as, 

Active voice, Indicative mood, Present tense. 

Sin. I ought, Thou oughtest, or ought, He ought. 
Plu. We ought, Ye or you ought, They ought. 
As, I ought to go now, &c. 

IMPERFECT TENSF/ 

Sin. I ought, Thou oughtest, or ought, He ought. 
Plu. We ought, Ye, or you ought, They ought. 

As, "I ought to have gone yesterday!" 



tOTYMOLOGY. 49 

Note. — It appears very clear to me, that ought is also used in the first 
future, as, "I ought to go to Boston to-morrow." But it retains the same 
form, as in the present tense. But this is no more strange, than that the 
infinitive should have the same form, in the present and future. I have 
therefore put it down in that tense, and, if others do not approve of it, they 
can drop it. 

First Future. 

Sin. I ought, Thou ought, He ought. 

Plu. We ought, Ye, or you ought, They ought. 

It also appears to me to belong to the imperfect tense, but if others think 
differently, they can drop that tense also, and use only the present. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
1. 2. 8. 

S. I weet, wit, Thou weetest, wiest, He weeteth, witeth, 
P. We weet, wit, Ye or you weet, wit, They weet, wit. 

Imperfect Tense. 
S. I wot, Thou wotest, wot, He wot, woteth, 

P. We wot, Ye or you wot, They wot. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

S. I wis, Thou wist, He wis: P. We wis, Ye or you wise, They wis. 

Imperfect Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

S. I wist, Thou wist, He wist : P. We wist, Ye or you wist, They wist. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

S. I nist, Thou nist, He nist: P. We nist, Ye or you nist, They nist. 

Indicative Mood, Imperfect Tense. 

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

S. Q,uothI, , Quoth he: Quoth we, Quoth ye, or you, Quoth they. 

Note.— ^Because tk, or eth is one of the distinguishing term. ^ is of 
English verbs, in the indicative mood, third person singular, ma pert ^s 
have supposed quoth to be bad English, and a departure from the c tomary 
and settled form of the language, being ignorant of the etymology a dform 
of the verb. But it is strictly accurate. The th, in quoth, de<f_..ates not 
the third person. It is from the Saxon verb, gwethan, which has qwoth for 
the imperfect tense, which, in English, is written quoth. [2 Took, 323. 

2. The first personal verbs are those which are used in the first person 
niy. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
1- 1. 

Sing. Prithee, (aj Sing. 1 throw, (b) 

(a) That is I pray thee. Dr. Lowth says that this is of Saxon origin. 

(b) I do not know why this verb has become confined to the first per- 
son singular, indicative mood. It is derived from the Teutonic word Tra- 
wen, and the Saxon Truevian, to believe, think, or trust. If used at ail, it 
is capable of use in all the voices, moods and tenses, as any of our verbs, 
and is certainly of comly authography and pronunciation, and might be 
used with as good and graceful propriety, as any verb which we have, car- 
rying the same general expression of idea. 

The auxiliaries, as such, probably all fall under this head, and, when used 
alone, they seem to indicate the mood and tenses of the verb to which they 
belong. To give a better understanding of them, we shall,in another place, 
give a full scale of them, by themselves 
3 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. Third personal verbs are those which are used in the third person only. 
They are pure and impure, 

1. The pure have no other form. Of this kind we have two only. 

Indicative Present Tense. 
1. 2, 3. 1. 2. 3. 

Sin. <** , , methinks. (&) Sin. , , it behoves, 

(a) Lowth says that this is of Saxon origin. As we now use this form 
of the verb think, we appear to arrive at it in the following manner : my 
mind thinks. By dropping the intermediate, mind, and changing y into i, 
in the initial me, we get the term " methinks." This was anciently writ- 
ten, me thinketh, i. e. it thinketh, thinketh me. [2 Took, 341. 
" Where shall we sojourn, till our coronation? 
Where it thinks best unto your royal self." [Richard 3d, 186. 

2. The impure third personals, are those which are occasionally so used, 
and are also used in all the other persons, as personal verbs. All our verbs 
have this versatility of character, and, when so used, are always in the sin- 
gular number, third person, and having always it for the nominative case. 
As third personals, they are not capable of use in any other way, and are 
not capable of having any other nominative. And it, when a nominative to 
a third personal verb, is equally applicable to all the genders. 

It must be noticed, that verbs in the third person, and third personal 
verbs, are distinct words, to wit, third personal verbs are confined entirely 
to the singular number, third person, neuter gender, and to it 9 as a nomina- 
tive. Verbs in the third person singular, are equally applicable to all the 
genders, and take any nominative that chances to fall upon them. Third 
personal verbs are such as these : it thaws, it freezes,, it rains, it snows, it 
grieves me, it pleases me, it delights me,itthunders, it deceives me, it sup- 
ports me, it becomes her, it w 7 ounds me, &c. 

And it is worthy of notice, that some verbs, which are neuter, on becoming 
third personals, take the objective after them. 

It should be also distinctly noticed, that it, when the nominative to a third 
personal verb, does not refer to any particular antecedent, but to the gen- 
eral idea, or .subject matter. And no one will call this an idle distinction, 
when he shall have examined far enough into the case, to understand the 
difference between sentences wherein it refers to a particular antecedent, 
and thereby becomes a substitute, and those in which it relates to the sub- 
ject matter, or the general idea, and not to any particular word, as an ante- 
cedent. And the distinction, in all cases, is clear and definite, when prop- 
erly noticed, and is one of the fundamental principles of our language. 

In the use of the impure third personals, it will be noticed that they are 
generally used in the present tense, although they are sometimes used in 
the imperfect. ( 

Second. — Verbs, in the manner in which they express action, being, or 
passion, are divided into active, passive, middle, and neuter. 

1. An active verb has an agent acting, and an object affected by the ac- 
tion, as, " John loves study." 

2. A passive verb expresses passion, or sufference, or the receiving of an 
action, and implies an object acted upon, and an agent by which it is acted 
upon, as, u Eliza is loved by Seth." 

The peculiar form and character of the passive verb, is, that the real ob- 
ject of the verb is the nominative to the verb, and the real agent, or person 
acting, is the object of a prepositiqn. And, though the verb, in its real na- 
ture, effect and character, is active, the preposition intervenes, and assumes 
the governing power, and takes it away from the verb, leaving it no object 
to act upon. It therefore becomes a peculiar species of neuter verb, having 
neither nominative nor objective case after it ; whereas, the neuter verb, 
$robably v in all cases, takes the nominative after it. 



ETYMOLOGY. 51 

3. A middle verb may be active, or neuter, in signification, though proba- 
bly always active, as, "Seth is loving Eliza." 

4. A neuter verb simply expresses bring, or existance, and is always con- 
tained under the active, or middle form, as, " I am, thou sitist, he is." 

Note. — The passive verb is formed by associating the perfect participle 
active with the helping verb s or verbs. 

The middle verb is formed by associating the present participle active, 
with the auxiliary, or auxiliaries, and is, in reality, the active verb, used in 
this peculiar form, and in a more definite and exact expression of action, 
than the pure active verb. As it cannot be inflected with the active verb, 
on account of its peculiar form, nor with the passive verb, on account of 
its expression and use of the present instead of the perfect participle active, 
I have thought that it would be better, and more intelligible to inflect it by 
itself, and give it a distinct name. I have therefore called it the middle 
verb, because it partakes- of both the active and passive verbs, being passive 
in formation, with the exception above 'named, and active in signification 
and government. 

If teachers should not like the above clasification and distinctions, they 
can, if they can, without trouble and confusion, get over the difficulties 
growing out of the inflection, class and use it with the active verb. 

It is also worthy of remark that, besides the difference, in formation, be- 
tween the active and middle verbs, a difference exists in this, the active 
verb seems to relate to the habit and manner of the agent, with a general 
relation to time, the middle, to the immediate act and imployment ot the 
agent. 

Some call this the indefinite tense of the active verb; but this is perfect- 
ly erroneous, for this construction would make every tense of the active 
verb,in each mood, except the imperative, and infinitive, indefinite. And 
this would be false in fact, for the middle form of the verb is much more 
definite, in the manner of the expression of the action, than the active 
form, and no one ever thought of calling the active form of our verbs in- 
definite. And this distinction of the verbs into active, passive and middle, 
has no regard to their modes, nor tenses, but relates wholly to the forma- 
tion and inflection of the verbs, and their signification. 

Another difference is between the active and middle verbs; the former 
express actioiV'^nly : the latter the actual existance of the agent as well as 
the act. And so does the passive verb. And herein it partakes of both 
the active and passive verbs also. 

The foregoing classification of the verbs must be more intelligible to the 
scholar, than the old, for all logicians agree that it is better to introduce 
new terms, into didactic works, than to load old ones with diverse defini- 
tions, whereby their meanings become obscure, and their use, of course, 
attended with many difficulties. 

The verbs, as to government, are all active, or neuter, that is, they take, 
or not, an objective case after them. 

What we mean by an active verb, in grammar, is one having an objec- 
tive case after it. What we mean by a neuter verbis one having a nomina- 
tive case after it, or, in some instances, no case at all, the government be- 
ing performed by a preposition intervening. We have very few neuter 
verbs. Most of the verbs, which have been esteemed nueter, have objects 
understood, which have been overlooked by the carelessness of teachers, 
in not properly supplying the elipsis. 

The verbs, in forming their inflections, in the moods and tenses, have 
three voices, the active, passive and middle. 

1 have introduced the voices, into the English, because it is conformable 
to the custom of language generally to have voices, that is, different ways 
of calling, framing, or inflecting the verbs. So we see that voice, as ap- 
plied to grammar, has two definitions: 1. The different significations of the 



m ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

verbs : 2. The different manner of inflecting them. And, it should be un- 
derstood that grammar forms not the language; but language, as establish- 
ed by custom and use, forms the grammar of the language, that is, the pe- 
culiar shape and form, which the language takes. And it has appeared to 
me impossible to manage our verbs according to the true idiom of the lan- 
guage, as it is now settled, by use and custom, without these three voices. 
For the middle verb is neither the active nor passive verb of our language. 
And it should also be clearly uuderstood that, herein, I am adding nothing 
to the la -1 ruage, which the people have not adopted," and sanctioned, by 
long aii a ttled use and custom ; but I am only endeavoring to reduce to 
system and irder, what the people have made and adopted. And our lan- 
guage has too long, for the credit of the nations speaking it, remained in 
this u i settled and undigested state. 

If the use of the middle voice should be finally disallowed, this form of 
the verbs ought to be flung into the passive voice, for its form is passive, 
excepting the use of the present, instead of the perfect participle active. 

Many of our ablest writers have intirely mistaken the character and for- 
mation of the English verbs, and have indeavored to break down the whole 
system of inflections of the verbs into the present, past and future tenses 
active, and account for all the other tenses, on the principles of the infini- 
tive and participles. And these errors have been the great causes of con- 
fusion and uncertainty in the use and application of the verbs. And it 
must be apparent to every one that, having so important a class of words, 
as the verbs, left in a confused and unsettled, and unexplained condition, 
it must embarrass and conftrse the whole system of the language. For no 
science can be correctly taught and clearly explained, when principles are 
mistaken, much less, when wrongly laid down and applied, and explained^ 
What would have been the darkness and confusion, in the science of as- 
tronomy now, if Aristotle's phylosophy had remained to this time. It is no 
matter to what subject we apply error, it has the same blighting and evil 
effect, wherever it goes. And until our verbs shall be systemized and in- 
flected exactly according to the true manner, in which they are used, in 
our daily and constant intercourse, in speaking and writing, we shall be 
continually troubled with editions and compilations of grammatical systems, 
which shall roll in upon us and recede like the waves of the sea, without 
inlightning the people, or leaving* any beneficial traces behind, them. 

The English language has now acquired such a standing and ascendency, 
in the world, that it has become all important that it should be explained as 
it is, and its true idiom acknowledged and adopted. Our language, if prop- 
erly cultivated, is so capable of form and system, within itself, that we 
ought to abandon the idea of explaining or inflecting it upon the principles 
of the Greek and Latin, or any other language. If, in certain things, it 
coincides with any other language, adopt those coincidences into our own 
language, as a part thereof, without indeavoring to bend and warp ours to 
any other. All languages must, of necessity, have points of coincidence 
and points of difference, because all languages are made of the names of 
things, their uses and associations with each other, and the different ways 
of using and comparing these names and associations. And the greater the 
sameness of things and the manner of using them, the greater will be the 
coincidence of different languages. 

Another and great reason why our language ought to be reduced to its 
natural system, and that system adopted and used, is the immense extent of 
territory over which it is destined to spread, and the great population which 
will speak the language. For it cannot escape the observation of all dis- 
cerning persons, that the English must eventually be spoken by a much 
larger population, and over a larger territory, than any other language in 
the world. For it will be the language of England, Scotland, Ireland, 
North America, except Mexico, New Holland, a great part of Africa, a great 



ETYMOLOGY. 53 

part of the West India Islands, Honduras, a part of the South Sea Islands, 
and a great part of*Asia. 

Third. — Verbs, as to their character and the ideas they express, 
are divided into principal and auxiliary. The principal verb con- 
veys the general idea of the action, and the auxiliary the modifi- 
cation of the action, as to mood and tense. By the help of these, 
the principal verbs form most of their infhictions 3 in conjugation. 
They are am, be, have, do, will, may, must, can and shall. 

Some reckon all the variations of these verbs as auxiliaries, but itis as 
improper as to reckon all the variations of the pronouns, which see. 

Am, by some is supposed to be derived from two Hebrew words, ah, 
breath, or to breathe, life, or to live, light, or to light, and ma, the hand, 
and signifies to inliven, sustain, or support one's self in being. Others sup- 
pose it to be derived from eimi, Greek. The change from eimi to am is 
very natural and easy. The e is silent. By changing i to a and dropping 
the last i, we haver am. The signification of the Greek and Hebrew is the 
same, and the same also in the English. Sum, in the Latin is the same 
word. 

Be, from the Saxon verb, beon, has the same meaning as am. The Saxon 
never borrowed nor used the Greek eimi, in any form, but used their own 
word, which they had from the Gothic, their mother tung. We have, 
therefore, in the English, the two words meaning the same thing, which 
we can use, as fancy or harmony may direct. These are both used as prin- 
cipal and auxiliary verbs. 

Hace is from the Latin hdbeo, and is of the same meaning. It is used 
both as a principal and auxiliary, in the English. In the Latin, it was 
never used as an auxiliary. 

Do, is occasionally used as a helping verb in the indicative present, and 
did in the imperfect. It is mostly used as a principal verb. It is from the 
Gothic verb, taug an, to act, or to perform, and is the same word as our pre- 
position to, except that one is written to, and the other do, for d and t are 
used and always have been, as conversible letters. 

Will is used both as a helping and principal verb. It is from the Latin 
verb volo, which they probably pronounced icolo, to determine, or estab- 
lish in one's mind, and has the same meaning in the English. 

May, of magan, Saxon, and mogen, Teutonic, means to be able to do, or 
perform any thing. It is always used as a helping verb, in the English, 
and signifies permission, or obligation to act, or do any thing. It was form- 
erly used as a principal verb, but is not latterly. 

Must of mussen, Teutonic, means to be confined, bound, or restrained, 
or to be needy. It is latterly always used as a helping verb. 

Can, is always used as a helping verb, though formerly it was a principal 
verb. It signifies to know, to be able, to understand, &c. The Scotch still 
use it as a principal verb. It is probably from knomi, Greek, I know. In 
the Scotch it is ken. ' Our English noun kun, is from the same source, and 
so is cun. 

Shall, is from the Saxon verb scaelan, or seylan, and means to be bound, 
obliged, or required. It was a principal verb, in that language, and form- 
erly in ours. Latterly, it is only used as a helping verb. 

Helping verbs are occasionly used alone, at the end of a clause or sen- 
tence, to save the repetition of the principal verb, as " I cannot run as fast 
as I used to do." And sometimes the prefix to only is used, as " When I 
return I will give you that book, which I promised to." 

Most of our dictionary writers and grammarians use the infinitive, for 
the radical term of the verb. If that is correct, there is the proper place 
to begin the formation of the verb, to determinine its regularity, or inregu- 



54' ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

larity, and to derive the participle. As, To be, teas been^ No one will pre- 
tend that this is correct ; for every one begins with am, as, am, was, been. 
So of any other verb ; as, I love, loved, loved,. This is a perfect violation 
of the true idiom of the language, which is love, loved, loved. 

Thus we see that the first person singular, indicative, is the radical term, 
and that the pronoun I, ought to be associated with the verb, instead of 
the preposition to. To is commonly used in distinguishing nouns from 
verbs; the noun love, and the verb to love, whereas it should be the verb 1 
love. 

§ 2. OF MOODS. 

Mood, or mode, is a peculiar inflection of the verb, shewing 
the manner in which the action, being,, or passion is represented. 

They are the different changes, which the verb undergoes, in 
signifying the various intentions of the mind, and the various 
modifications and circumstances of the action. 

They are four : the Indicative, Imperative, Potential, and In- 
finitive . 

1. The indicative affirms, denies, and asks questions; as, u He 
loves. I will not do it. Who did this 1 " 

2. The imperative commands a second person to do an act ; as, 
" Go thou. Come ye." 

When entreaty is mixed with the command, do is sometimes used as an 
auxilliary, in the imperative; as, " Do thou come." 
Third personal imperatives require a third person to be permitted to do 
an act; as, " Ador'd be he, who comes to bless, the nations with his righte- 
ousness." t: All glory be to God, on high, and to the earth be peace ; good- 
will, henceforth, from heaven to men, begin and never cease." " Hallowed 
be thy name ; thy kingdom come; thy will be done," &c. 

" Ador'd be he, who comes to bless 

The nations with his righteousness. 
All glory be to God, on high, 

And to the earth be peace ; 
Good will, henceforth, from heaven to man, 

Begin and never cease." 

Many have held let to be an auxiliary, in the imperative, as, "Let me 
go." It never is so used. Let is always a principal verb. Ln all such 
cases, the objective case follows let, and the infinitive, without the sign to 
follows that objective. We have many verbs which operate in this way. 

When command and entreaty are mixed together, do is occasionally used 
as an auxiliary, in the imperative, as, " Do thou come." 

In some instances, exhorting and permitting may fall within this mood, 
but mostly in the indicative and potential. The most fervent entreaty, and 
submissive supplication, and the most earnest invitation, are used in the 
imperative, and militate not against the single definition of it, as above 
given ; as, " Turn thou us, O S Lord, and we shall be turned." " Give us 
this day, our daily bread." "Come ye blessed of my father." But all 
such expressions, however invitive, supplicative, or entreative, have all their 
imperative form, energy, and character. . [Webster, 177. 

And it should be noticed, that the form of the verb, and not the idea of 
command, makes what we call the imperative, in our language. For our 
most striking forms of command, are used in the indicative, as, " Thou 
shalt go. Thou shalt not go." And this versatility of command is some- 
what analogous to our form of possession among the nouns, by the use of 



ETYMOLOGY. 5£ 

of, in the objective, and is rather an ornament than a blemish to the lan- 
guage. 

I am inclined to the opinion, that do is properly used as an auxiliary, in 
the imperative, in the few cases in which it appears, because it unites in the 
same nominative with the principal verb. And I see no reason to suppose 
that any other verb is ever used as an auxiliary, in the imperative. 

Murray says, page 154, that "the auxiliary let, governs the objective 
case. This is the very reason why let is not an auxiliary. 

The imperative may very properly be divided into two kinds — intrinsic 
and extrinsic. Intrinsic, when the command and the act are bcth contained 
in the same word, as, l€ Go thou. Come ye." Extrinsic, when one word 
contains the command, and another expresses the act to be performed, as, 
" Let me go. Let them come." For, when we give an intrinsic command, 
we command a second person to do an act. And, when we give an extrin- 
sic command, we command a second person to permit a first, or a third 
person to do an act : let expressing the command, and the other verb, in 
the infinitive, expressing the act to be done. 

We have one fundamental rule by which to solve all grammatical ques- 
tions, viz : when it can be solved in any particular manner, according to 
the idiom of the language, and, in no other way, without violating some 
known principle, that way is to be considered right. 

Then, as these forms^ are all solvable, by the infinitive, we are bound to 
consider this the proper method. 

The use of a few verbs in the infinitive, preceded by the objective of the 
first or third person, governed by let, is not from any intrinsic quality of 
these verbs; but custom has so authorized. 

But the source of this error, probably, is a disposition in those writers 
who have adopted it, to conform our lauguage to the Latin, in this respe :t } 
without considering that our and their languages, in this respect, are entirelv 
different. That language has a form, in the imperative, applicable to the 
first and third, as well as the second person. Ours is so scaled and framed, as 
to be applicable to the second and third persons only, and its form cannot now 
be altered, however many improper attempts may be made by those who do 
not understand the difference between the Latin and English idioms. The 
Latin has a peculiar inflection, in the imperative, when an extrinsic com- 
mand is made, which we have no exact method of translating, for want of 
a corresponding form, in our imperative, and can only phrase it by the use 
of let, with the objective and infinitive following. Therefore, all attempts 
to bring the Latin and English imperatives together, in this particular, will 
always be fruitless, and be a continual source of difficulty, and will tend 
only to shpw the ignorance and folly of those who may continue to make 
the attempt. 

A great deal of controversy has been kept up by different grammarians, 
about the tense of the imperative mood. Cardell, in his essay, §229, says 
that it is always in the future. But this mistake seems to come from not 
distinguishing between the command given and the act to be done, by the 
one commanded. The command appears always to be in the present tense, 
and the act may be in the present or future, according to the nature and 
circumstances of the case. 

3. The Potential Mood expresses liberty, power, duty, possi- 
bility, will, inclination, or obligation of doing an action, as, " I 
may go, I can go," &,c. See the conjugations. 

Some deny the potential mood, wholly, especially that class of writers 
who contend that we have but three tenses. But this form of the verb has 
obtained as settled a form, in the constant use of the written and spoken 
language, as the indicative, and it would be as hopeless and improper to 



5€ ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

undertake now to discard the potential, as the indicative, or any* other form 
which, by constant use and practice, has become an idiom of the language. 

4. The Infinitive Mood expresses an action in a general or un- 
limited manner, as, " To be, to love, to be loved, to be loving." 

Some call this the verb substantive, because it is often the nominative to 
a verb, and sometimes has a corresponding word agreeing with it, and 
is sometimes absolute ; all which properties belong to substantives. It is 
always distinguishable from the other moods of the verb, by the sign to, 
expressed or understood, and prefixed. 

The infinitive present, is often used for a future participle, as, "In time 
to come." "A penalty of six cents a mile, to be deducted from the quar- 
terly pay." That is, for want of a future participle, in each of our vices, 
we are obliged to make the best shift we can with our infinitive present, in 
the future, associated with other words, where other languages having 
those participles, use them. 

Mr. Balch, in his lectures, has spent much labor to prove that we have no 
present tense, in the infinitive. His views seem to have grown out of a 
wrong notion of this mood, in not looking into its true nature. A very 
considerable part of our infinitive, which has been considered and taught 
to be present, is, in fact, future, but without any change of form, in the 
verb, that future idea being always expressed by a noun or adverb. And 
this happens in our language, from a want of a future form in our parti- 
ciples. If we had had that form, it would have relieved us of this trouble. 
And it is in the infinitive, as in the indicitive, the present, in many cases, is 
us d, wherein the continuance of time is represented. It has been a great 
source of misfortune, in our language, that many writers have undertaken 
to combat imaginary errors, instead of investigating and understanding the 
language as it is. The truth undoubtedly is, that all our verbs have a fu- 
ture tense, in the infinitive, retaining the same form as in the present tense. 
Mr. Comly, Gram., rule 18, says that verbs in the infinitive, are governed 
By the preposition to. This is untrue, for to is a prefix to mark this mood, 
in the place of the termination an, in the old English, Saxon, and Gothic. 
An, as a termination, in those languages, was the same to their verbs, as 
tin in the Greek ; and are, ire, and ere, in the Latin, mere marks of the 
infinitive, but having no governing influence. To, instead of governing 
is a component part of the verb. 

Cardell, Essay, §306, says .the infinitive is always future. I think nc 
as, "I love to work, or play." "He loves to be busy." The infinitive 
sometimes used in connexion with the imperfect tense, as, " Came dow 
the rope to come to prayers." 

The subjunctive mood has been acknowledged and used in our language 
for a long time, and its form marked and designated by the conjunction if 
and some other hypathetical terms, and merely because these terms havt 
not been properly explained and understood. But Mr. Took, in his divi- 
sions of Perley, has clearly shown that all these terms, which have been 
supposed to be doubtful and conditional, and have been used to mark and 
designate the subjunctive mood, are all terms of absolute assertion, without 
any condition whatever, and that, consequently, we have no subjunctive 
mood, in English, and that the language, in its present use and shape, is 
incapable of such a mood, and that nearly all expressions which have been 
considered doubtful and conditional, are certain and positive, and are con- 
tained in the indicative. The conjunction if, has taken the lead, in all 
forms which have been considered doubtful, conditional, and subju n ctive. 
This is merely an old Saxon imperative from the verb gifan, and is always 
absolute in its expression, having an objective after it, expressed or under- 
stood; as, "If I go to Boston, I will do your business." The if is, in fact, an 
imperative active verb, governing the noun that, understood. The elipsis 



ETYMOiA)Gi. 6, 

being supplied, the sentence would read thus: give that [fact] 1 go to Bos- 
ton, I will do your business. No person would ever think of putting this 
r sentence, in the subjunctive, and it just as much belongs to it, as the 
former. It is so with all the other conjunctions, which have been used to 
designate the subjunctive mood. The Scotch, I believe, still use gif. It 
is used by Burns, as, " But gif ye want a friend, that's true." 
" Give [gif] me ane spark of nature's fire." 

The Greek and Latin had conditional moods, which were designated by 
the peculiar forms and expressions of their verbs in those moods. The 
Latins called theirs subjunctive, and our literati not considering that the 
scale and inflections of the English verbs are different from the Latin, and 
being better skilled in the Latin, than the English, fell into this error, 
without consideration and proper reflection. Others, supposing these 
teachers perfectly skilled in the English, as in the Latin, took every thing 
for granted, that these men said or wrote, and so these errors have been 
introduced and handed down, from generation to generation, taught and 
believed, merely because they have been taught, with many others of like 
character, and probably would have been,- if Mr. Took had not explored 
these mysteries, and taken away the veil from these learned errors. 

But the light having, at length, dawned upon these hidden mysteries and 
shown them to be wrong and false, we can have no excuse, any longer, for 
continuing to teach what has been clearly shown to be false. I, therefore, 
take the libert}^, and presume that every candid person will support me in 
it, to omit the subjunctive mood in the scale and conjugation of the verbs. 

We have many words in the English, which are as indicative of doubt, as 
if, such as alt ho, grant, give, suppose, provided, <^c, which were never, by 
any one, supposed to have any thing to do with the subjunctive. And, be- 
sides, these conditional and hypothetical words, are used with as much 
care, freedom and propriety, in the potential. Then, if we should take 
them as signs of the subjunctive mood, in one case, we must in the other. 
We should therefore change the potential, in all such cases, into the sub- 
junctive, as well as the indicative. From a candid view of the whole sub- 
ject, it does appear to me, that this error has been kept in use long enough, 
and that it is high time to discard it. And, if we have a subjunctive at all, 
we have a subjunctive indicative, and a subjunctive potential. 

Some have supposed that we have as many moods, as we have auxiliary 
verbs, because they show so many modifications, or compound expressions 
of actions. But it is with moods, as with elementary sounds and compar- 
ative terms, when we have enough to convey clearly and distinctly our 
general ideas, and the different modifications of actions, it is enough for 
common use, and as many as can be taken into a grammatical sj^stem. The 
nicer distinctions are better left to the acuteness and ingenuity of our 
senses. 

And, after all, whether our language is as full and graceful as fancy 
could wish, or ever so poor and beggarly, is nothing to the question, and 
the true grammatical construction of the language. The grammarian has 
nothing to do, but to take it as it is, and reduce it to order and system, ac- 
cording to its own idiom. For it is in vain to undertake to introduce forms 
and things into a grammar, as parts and forms of the system of the lan- 
guage, which the people have never adopted and reduced to practice, and 
what they have never thought of. 

I suppose that one great cause of this error of supposing that we have a 
subjunctive mood, in English, is that, by transposition, we, in some cases 
omit the conjunction, in sentences like the following: 

" Could I but climb [if I could] to Pisga's top." 

M Had I the tongues [if I had] of Greeks and Jews." 

This form, or manner, of using our verbs is analogous to our method of 



58 ninGLiBfi GRAMMAR. 

using them v in interrogative sentences ; that of putting the nominative be*" 
fore the verb. But this is only a circumstance, not a form of the verb, of 
which every one will be satisfied, on paying a proper attention to the sub- 
ject. 

Mr. Cardell, essay, p. 137, says, "if such a mood was, 'it would certain- 
ly be in the power of some one to find out, in what its distinctive charactei 
consists.'" 

Ou /language is more distinct, absolute and specific, in the meaning anc 
application of its words, than any other known language. In this respect 
it has but little affinity with Greek and Latin, with which it has been most- 
ly compared, and analogy most industriously sought, and never found. 



§3. 



OF TENSES. 



Tense, or time, is the distinction of actions, as to the time when 
they may be said to be performed. They are eight : Present, Im- 
perfect, Perfect, Pluperfect, First Future, Second Future, First 
Indefinite, and Second Indefinite. 

I. The 'present tense represents an action as now passing, as, 
" I am, he loves." 

1. The present tense is used in speaking of the character and quality of 
actions occasionally continued, and of dead authors, as, " He is an excel- 
lent man." " He frequently rides into the country." " Senica moralizes 
well." 

2. The present tense is often contrasted with the future, by adverbs, as, 
"When he arrives, he will hear the news." This makes no inconsistency 
in the sense, for the time of action, as respects the verb in the present tense, 
by the help of the adverb, is carried forward and continually, with the run- 
ning events, to the time of the future action. The adverbs, by contrasting 
the different tenses, in this way, supply the deficiency of actual tenses, in 
the same manner they do the degree of comparison of adjectives, which 
should lead us to no diminutive idea of that class of words, and make us 
very careful in assigning them their proper places. These forms are in the 
nature of a continuance of time, which is always put in the present, as, "A 
cheerful heart maketh a glad countenance." 

3. In historical narration, the present is often substituted for the imper- 
fect, and adds this pleasure to the story, that it makes the scenery appear 
present, as, " He enters the territory, fights and conquers, takes an immense 
booty, and returns to enjoy an empty triumph." 

4. These continuences of present tense, are often contrasted with the 
future, as, " When he makes up his last account 

Of Jewells in his holy mount, 
'T will be an honor to appear, 

As one new-born, and nourish t there." [Watts. 

" The humbled minded earth possess, 
And bright in heaven shall dwell.'''' 
u For we shall see him, as he is," 

II. The Imperfect Tense represents an action as past and fin- 
ished, without any particular reference to the time when ; or an 
action which took place when some other action was doing, as 
" John loved letters/' " He was riding post, when I met him." 

1. In the former case, the particular tense of the verb, or time of action 
is wholly uncertain, unless designated by an adverb, as, "I wrote my lette 
yesterday." In' these cases, but one act is represented, and but one ver' 
used. 



ETYMOLOGY. 59 

2. In the latter case, two acts are represented, and two verbs are, of 
course, used ; one representing the person speaking, or acting, and the other 
representing the circumstances which took place. And it is of no conse- 
quence which is used first. In the double form of the imperfect, it is wor- 
thy of notice, that different voices are generally contrasted. When both 
verbs have the same nominative, both are in the active voice, as, "I w; 
home, when I saw her." When different nominatives and different veibs 
are used, the middle voice or active may be used, a?, "I was at fatune, wb n 
he came.'' "He was riding post, when I met him." "But the vision 
his mind would never have grown into reality, had he not have had mate- 
rials upon which to work." 

3. When a noun is absolute, with a participle in the first member of a 
sentence, and a nominative to a verb, in the second member, that verb 
should be in the pluperfect, as, " By modern authorities, it seems that a man 
residing under the allegiance and protection of a hostile state, is, though 
an alien enemy, as much entitled to protection, as if he were [had been] 
born there." 

4. The perfect and imperfect should not be contrasted together, as, " We 
have been, [were] when this cause was arguing, very explicit, in express- 
ing our sentiments of the difference." 

5. The continuance of time is sometimes put in the imperfect, in the 
middle voice, but cannot be so placed in the active nor passive, as, " When 
this cause was arguing." See the above example. This is an additional 
reason why the middle voice should be kept and used distinctly by itself. 

6. The imperfect passive is sometimes associated with the imperfect ac- 
tive, and the second indefinite should have been used, as, "In which 
time, if the security furnished by him, was [had been] given, the contract 
was to be [should have been] completed, and the saltpeter delivered." [11 
Ms. R. 322. 

7. In inductive conversation, whether positive, negative, or interroga- 
tive, the imperfeet is associated with itself, and so also is the pluperfect. 

8. We have a peculiar form, in our language, in using the imperfect, in 
certain cases, to express the present. It is good English, and we have no 
possible way, as I can see, of altering or evading it, because it has become 
a settled use and practice, in the language. It has, probablv, come into our 
language, from the want of a future form, in our participles. If we had 
that form, it would probably relieve us from this apparent irregularity, in 
the language, as, " If we had fhat form, it would relieve us." " If I* had an 
apple, I would give it to you.,' "If they knew how the bloom of health, 
softness of the skin, and purity of complexion, are promoted, by washing 
and shaving, they would adopt and practice them." " If 1 was you, I 
would do it" " Oh ! that my eyes were waters." The Greeks and Latins 
would probably use the present participle, in some, perhaps all of these 
cases, as, " I being you, I would do it." 

We also use the imperfect tense, in some cases, in reference to the past, 
present, and future, as, " I admit, if we had a subjunctive mood, it would 
be a convenience and ornament to our language." 

"Had I the tongues of Greek and Jews, 
And nobler speech than angels use, 
If love be wanting, I am found, 
Like tinkling brass — an empty sound." 

No future is here particularly expressed, but still the idea has a future 
reference. 

"My friends, if we were sensible of our faults; if we felt that Jesus is 
the Lamb of God, to take away the sin of the world, it would bring us into 
the situation of Mary." 

_ 9. We have some proper names which are the remains of perfect parti- 
ciples active, ending in it, as Lotitt and Lcavitt. We have before noticed, 



60 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

that perfect participles active, have been formerly ended in &, id, and ed. 
The double t and d being a common appendage, in proper names. 

10. A verb of present tense, should not be used with the imperfect tense, 
as, " Brother S. now [then] arose, and entertained us with an account of 
our cause " We noio [then] listened to some excellent remarks." 

III. The Perfect Tense represents an action as just past, though 
completly finished, as, " I have finished my letter." 

1. The distinction between the imperfect and perfect tense, is this : 
when we speak of an action as altogether past and finished, without any 
reference to the time when, except designated by an adverb or noun, we use 
the imperfect tense. When we speak of a past event, whose chain of evenjts 
comes up to the present, or whose idea of time has reference to the present, 
we use the perfect tense. When we speak of anything as done in this~year, 
month, &c, we use the perfect, because some part of those chronologies is 
still passing away, or remain unfinished, as, " Philosophers have made great 
discoveries, in this century." But, in these cases, we only speak of that 
part of the century which has actually passed away. This is another spe- 
cies of the contrivences of time. 

2. Speaking of authors, whose works are now extant, we use the perfect, 
as "Cicero has written good orations." But if neither the work nor the 
author be extant, we use the imperfect, as " Cicero wrote beautiful poems. 

3. When a negative affirmation is made in the imperfect, concerning an 
act, which had previously taken place, that previous act should always be 
narrated in the pluperfect, as, " no deliberate act for the preservation of the 
whole, except the separation of the mast and rigging from the hull, after 
they were [had been] carried away." All writers and speakers ought care- 
fully to notice and observe the proper contrasts of the voices, moods and 
tenses, for, on this, greatly depends the framing of good, correct and intel- 
ligible English. 

4. So, in speaking of an order or race of men, who are extinct, we use 
the imperfect tense, as "the Druids claimed great powers." The perfect 
tense is never associated with itself, nor any other tense. 

IV. The Pluperfect Tense represents an action, which passed 
prior to some other time specified in the sentence, as, " I had fin- 
ished my letter before he arrived." 

1. Some distinguish these three tenses, by the names of the first, second 
and third peterites. Some call them the preter imperfect, the preter per- 
fect, and the preter pluperfect. , It is of little consequence what names we 
give to things. The great object is to understand the things themselves, 
their natures and uses. 

2. In indicative conversations, whether positive, negative or interroga- 
tive, the pluperfect is associated with the imperfect. In hypothetical 1 r >- 
guage, the pluperfect is always associated with the second indefinite. 

3. The pluperfect tense is some times associated with the present, as 
" I think you had better settle with him as he proposes." The pluperfec: 
in all such cases, has a future idea. 

V. The First Future Tense represents an action, which is tt 
take place hereafter, without specifying the time when, as, a The 
sun will rise." "I shall see you again." 

1. When the time is designated, it is always done by the help of an, ad- 
verb, or a noun and adjective, as "I shall see you tomorrow." "The sun 
will rise in two hours." 

VI. The Second Future Tense represents an action, which will 



ETYMOLOGY. 61 

be accomplished, at, or before the accomplishment of another fu- 
ture action, as "I shall have learned my lesson, before you [will] 
return." 

1. It is to be particularly noticed that the action refered to is always in 
the first future, and thai: the second future is always associated with the 
first future. 

VII. The First Indefinite, represents an action indiscriminately 
in the present, past, or future, which must be determined by the 
sense, as "It is my wish that he should come now." "He would 
not go yesterday." " It would please 'me should he bring his 
brother with him." "I shall see him, if he should come to-mor- 
row." * 

1. This tense is associated with the present tense, when the ideas are all 
present, with the imperfect, or with itself, when the ideas all refer to past 
events, and with the rirst future, when the ideas are all future. 

u If we could see now, with our present faculties, the emerald gates 
thrown open, it would be too great for us:" Present tense. 

" If all would do this, we should be happier, and the world would be 
better:" Future tense. 

VIII. The Second Indefinite Tense represents an action, which 
might have passed, while some other action might have taken 
place, as "I might have seen him, had I been there." 

1. In this tense, the action on which the contingency depends, must first 
take place, as, " I would have paid him, if he had finished the job." And, 
herein it differs from the pluperfect, for that tense represents an action 
which passed prior to the other; this, one which passed posterior. The 
pluperfect is always associated with the imperfect; the seeond indefinite 
with the pluperfect. These distinctions never fail nor vary, and are the 
criterions by which to know and distinguish the first and second indefinites 
from the imperfect and pluperfect. 

2. We see, by the definitions and explanations of the foregoing tenses, 
that the province of each tense is as peculiar and distinct, as its form, and, 
though, m some cases, time is expressed with more certainty, than in others, 
yet each has always its real and essential difference from the others, in 
designating the different acts expressed by the verb. And it is very strange 
that no author has, as yet, in his writings, exhibited any just sense or knowl- 
edge of the true construction of the English verbs. In all my reading, I 
have never discovered that the author understood the frame of the verbs. 
I hesitate not to say, that the frame and form of the verbs, if used accord- 
ing to the true ideom of the language, and the rules and definitions above 
given, are as clear and perfect, and as easily applicable, in composition, a3 
the- rules of geometry. 

3. The first and second indefinites are substituted for the imperfect and 
pluperfect tenses, in the potential mood only. These forms of the verbs 
are now established, by long and uniform use, in the language, and cannot 
now be altered. Therefore, the only thing, that can be done, is to system- 
ize, and adopt, in form, what the people have adopted in fact. 

4. Some may, perhaps, be averse to the adoption and use of these terms, 
in our language. But, if they turn to the definitions of the imperfect and 
pluperfect^ uses, as used in the indicative, they will see, at on ce/that those 
definitions cannot be applied to the potential mood. Neither is the expres- 
sion of the verb, in the potential, like the indicative. We are, therefore, 
reduced *n this plain alternative, either to give a new set of definitions to 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

those tenses in the potential, or give new names. I have supposed that the 
latter method would be much more intelligable to learners, for a name is 
more easily remembered than a definition, and less liable to mistake. For, 
if one set of definitions should be made applicable to the indicative, and 
the other to the potential, the names remaining the same, scholars would 
be constantly at a loss to which mood to apply the definitions. And this 
want of proper names and definitions of the tenses of the verbs, in the po- 
tential, is what has kept the true system of our verbs misunderstood, mis- 
taught, and misapplied. And why should we expect thisbranch of science, 
which no one has, as yet, explained, because no one has understood it, to be 
clearly taught ? 

5. These two tenses, in name, are not introduced into the language as 
novelties, nor from a desire to differ from other writers. They are coeval 
with the English language and forms, which cannot be abandoned nor dis- 
missed. We must keep them and use them, because we cannot do without 
them. 

6. The adoption and use of these tenses, will at once relieve the imper- 
fect and pluperfect tenses from all ambiguity, and the teachers and learners 
from all embarrassment, in this part of Grammar. But if any, from obsti- 
nacy and self-will, shall refuse to adopt and use these tenses, as defined and 
explained, in the potential mood, they must blunder along, in the use and 
perpetuation of old errors, as well as they can. 

7. In the use of the different tenses, it will be seen that adverbs have a 
very great influence upon the tenses of the verbs, in giving exact and defi- 
nite explanations of time. And this is the way that particular and exact 
definitions are given to all the different classes of words, by the peculiar 
influence that other classes have upon them, in restraining, inlarging and 
modifying their significations, in their various relations and associations. 
And these are the highest ornaments and graces of language. 

8. To show more particularly the manner of the association of the moods 
and tenses, I have selected a few faulty examples, that I might thereby il- 
lustrate the truth more forcibly, by associating it, at the same time, with 
the error. 

9. The present tense should always be associated with itself, as "I can- 
not forgive the remissness of those, whose business it should have been 
[was,] as it certainly was their interest, to have interposed [to interpose] 
their good offices." In this example it is also observable that the imperfect 
should have been contrasted with itself. 

10. The imperfect should be associated with the infinitive present, as 
" two circumstances were, which made it necessary for them to have lost 
[to loose] no time. 

11. When the present is associated with the past, it should be with the 
infinitive perfect, as u From his knowledge, he appears to have studied the 
scriptures, with great attention." 

12. The first Indefinite should be associated with the imperfect, as "On 
the morrow when he would have hnown [would know] the certainty, 
whereof he was accused of the Jews, he loosed him." And so the reverse, 
as " I feared that I should have lost [should loose] it, before I arrived at the 
city. 

13. The second indefinite should be associated with the infinitive perfect, 
as " History painters would have found it difficult to have invented such a 
species of beings." "It would "have afforded me great pleasure to have 
been the bearer of such intelligence." 

14. The Imperfect should be associated with the present participle, as 
"They found him transgressing the laws." 

15. If ought is used in the present, it should be associated with the infin- 
itive present, as "I ought to do it." If in the Imperfect, it should be as- 
sociated with the infinitive perfect, as "I ought to have done it." 

16. The pluperfect with the second indefinite, as "Had the limitation of 



ETYMOLOGY. „ 63 

the prerogative, in his time, been fixed and certain, his integrity had [would 
have] made him regard, as sacred, the boundaries of the constitution." 

17. The first future, with the perfect, as "They will forfeit the honorable 
station, they have hitherto maintained." 

18. The first indefinite, with the present and itself, as " If these should 
be chased away, which are already sufficiently gorged, a more hungry 
swarm would succeed, and I should be robbed of every remaining drop of 
blood, in my veins." 

19. When both parts of a sentencs are hypothetical, both verbs should 
be in the potential, as " But he should be one, who would not spare his 
very hide, when he was [should be] dead." 

20. When both parts of a sentence, in idea, are future, the present tense 
ought not to be associated, as "Thus shall thy life glide on serenely, and, 
when the angel of death arrives [shall arrive] with his commission to put 
an end to thy existence, thou shalt receive the summons with tranquility." 

21. If the first members of a sentence are positive the last hypothetical, 
the hypothesis should be in the potential, as " Regulus obeyed his masters 
and embarked for Rome, having bound himself, by a solemn oath, to re- 
turn to his chains, if the negociation did [should] not succeed." 

22. If one member is positive and two hypothetical, the hypothesis should 
be in the potential, as, " Those troops who were forced away against their 
wills, would probably more than half join the cause of independence, as 
soon as they arrived." [should arrive] "Thou art a prodigious wretch, 
whom justice will punish, as thou deservest, if a second complaint of the 
same nature is [should be] brought against thee." 

23. A part being stated, depending upon an hypothesis, the conclusion 
should be in the infinitive future, as, "If, upon these facts, the court should 
be of opinion that the defendant is entitled to recover, judgment was [is] to 
be entered for him; otherwise he was [is] to be defaulted." [10 Mass. R. 
324. 

24. The first future should not be associated with the perfect, but with 
itself, and the present, as, 

" Nor shall thy spreading gospel rest, 

'Till through the earth thy truth has [shall] run, 
'Till Christ hath [shall] all the nations blest, [bless] 
That see the light, or feel the sun." 

The present tense, at the conclusion, is the continuance of time. 

25. In the first and rude state of language, probably but three tenses 
were used, and these are all the natural divisions of time. Rut it has hap- 
pened to language, as to all the arts and sciences, when a supposed im- 
provement was made, a name, corresponding to that improvement, has al- 
ways been given to it. Probably, also, at first, only the indicative and im- 
perative modes were used, because these appear to be all that are necessary. 
But mankind have not, in any one thing, been contented with bare neces- 
sity, but have made every possible effort for ornament, facility, an$ con- 
venience ; and, as the arts and sciences have been improved, language has 
always been improved with them. And we find that those nations that 
have excelled most in the arts and sciences, have correspondingly improved 
their languages. 

§ 4. OF NUMBER AND PERSON. 

Verbs have the same numbers and persons, as the nouns and 
pronouns with which they agree. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

§ 5. OF THE CONJUGATION OP THE AUXILIARIES, UNCONNECTED 

WITH ANY OTHERS. " 

I. Am and Be. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
Sing. Plu. 

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

I am, Thou art, He is : I We are, Ye, or you are, They are ; 

I be, Thou be, or beest, He be ; J We be, Ye, or you be, They be. 

Imperfect Tense. 

1. 2. 3. 1. 2. 3. 

Sin. Plu. 

I was, Thou wast, He was ; We were, Ye, or you were, They were. 

Imoerative Mood. 
2. . 2. 

Sin. Be^ Be thou, or do thou be : PI. Be, Be ye, or you, or do ye, you Be. 

Am, in the English, sum in the Latin, and eimi in the Greek, are all one 
word, with the same meaning, and of one common origin. We may take 
ours from the Latin, by dropping the s, and changing utoa; or from the 
Greeks, by dropping the e and the last i, and changing the first i to a. And 
it is probably a matter of indifference, from which source we take it. Or 
we may refer them all to the Hebrew, from whence they probably came. 

Be or am, is called a substantive verb, because it signifies existance. Be 
we take directly from beon, Saxon, our mother tongue, and am from the 
Greek, for they are the same word, in realit} 7 , and though so different in 
present appearance, from one comman origin, having acquired their pres 
ent form from the circumstance of coming down to us through different 
languages. 

And probably these three all come from the compound of two Hebrew 
words, ah. breath, to breath; life, to live; light, to light; and ma, the 
hand, or to hand, or to handle. It signifies to enliven, sustain, or support 
• one's self. If we take ours directly from the Hebrew words ah and ma, 
we get the compound am, by dropping the h, in ah, and the a in ma, and 
thereby we make the compound am. [Balch's lect. 183. 

Plutarch says the Greeks had the letters EI, thou art, engraven on the 
temple of Apollo, at Delphi, which is the second person of eimi, I am. And 
he says that this title is not only proper, but peculiar to God, because he 
alone is being. And this is probably the unknown God, to whom the altar 
was built, at Athens, of which St. Paul speaks, in Acts. 

The Latin word manus, the hand, is probably from ma. The Jews lono 
preserved this name in Samaritan letters, to keep it from being known to 
strangers. 

Be is derived to us directly from beon, Saxon. It is very irregular, be- 
ing derived from different radicals, and having undergone many dialectical 
changes, in the different languages, through which it has run down. It 
has two sounds, as Jones, in his Greek grammar, has justly observed; the 
Hebrew eue, the appropriate name of the author of all being, Jehovah, or 
Jove, and aur light, which figuratively represented life. The Greeks form- 
ed this upon the middle of the verbs in mi, as, 1. Eimi. 2. eis or ei. 3. 
eisi: am, art, is. The Latin sum. es, est, is the same, only changing eis to 
es, and eisi to est, which is no great. And we get our am, art, is, probably 
fromeimi, am, art from aur, Hebrew, light, and is from eisi. Webster sup- 
poses was, are, and were, also to be from the same source, that is, aur-, be- 
cause to be, or to exist, was considered the enjoyment of light. Webster 
also traces be from the Hebrew eve, by changing v to £, which are synony- 
mus letters, and dropping the first e, which is a Yery small and natural 
change, in running from one language to another. 



ETYMOLOGY. 65 

All writers upon grammar, so far as 1 have seen, have considered am, 
the true radical verb, and that its irregularities were be, in the subjunctive, 
imperative, and infinitive moods. 

The real truth, however, is, whether they are, in reality both from one 
source, and therefore the same word, which, after all is very doubtful, or 
are of different and independent origin, they both have the same meaning, 
and that we, in the English, have two substantive verbs of a different spel- 
ling, but of a like meaning, a richness, which perhaps, is not enjoyed by 
any other language, and .we are at liberty to use whichever we please, in 
those moods and tenses^ wherein they properly apply. 

I have gone thus largely into the etymology of these two words, in order 
that others may have a full chance to understand their true source and 
meaning, and to see clearly if any real distinction exists between them, 
which can give be any claim to the subjunctive mood. For, if be has no 
claim to the subjunctive, and T am fully satisfied it has no more claim than 
am, it is a very strong, and to me, conclusive argument, that we have no 
subjunctive mood, in the English. 

We have acquired this duplicate of the substantive verb, very much af- 
ter the manner, we have the duplicate of the article an, from the Saxon, 
and the adjective one from the Latin. 

II. Have. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I have, Thou havest, or hast, He has, or hath. 

Plu. We have, Ye or you have, They have. 

Imperfect Tense. 
I 2 3 

Sing. I had, Thou hadest, or hadst, He had. 

Plu. We had, Ye or you had, They had. 

III. Do. 

Indictive Mood, Present Tense, 
12 3 

Sing. I do, Thou doest, or dost, He does, or doth. 
Plu. We do, Ye or you do, They do. 

Imperfect Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I did, Thou didest or didst, He did. 
Plu. We did, Ye or you did, They did. 

IV. Will. 
Indicative Mood, Future Tense. 

1 2 3 

Sing. I will, Thou wiliest, or wilt, He will. 
Plu. We will, Ye or you will, They will. 

Potential Mood, First Indefinite Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I would, Thou wouldest, or wouldst, He would. 
Plu. We would, Ye or you would, They would. 

V. May. 
Potential Mood, Present Tense, 

12 3 

Sing. I may, Thou mayest, He may. 

Plu. We may, Ye or you may, They may. 

First Future Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I may, Thou mayest, He may. 

Plu. We may, Ye or you may, They may. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

First Indefinite Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I might, Thou mightest, He might : 

Plu. We might, Ye or you might, They might. 

VI. Must. 
Potential Mood, Present Tense. 

1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I must, Thou must, He must : 

Plu. We must, Ye or you must, They must. 
First Future Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I must, Thou must, He must : 

Plu. We must, Ye or you must, They must. 
First Indefinite Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I might, Thou mightest, He might: 

Plu. We might, Ye, or you might, They might. 

As to the use of may and must, it is observable that, when liberty or in 
cimation is expressed, may is the proper term. When duty, obligation 
or command, is expressed, must is the proper term. By attending to thit 
distinction, it will always be known from which of the two might is de 
rived. 

VII. Can. 
Potential Mood, Present Tense. 

1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can, Thou canest, or canst, He can: 
Plu. We can, Ye, or you can, They can. 

First Future Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can, Thou canest, or canst, He can : 
Plu. We can, Ye, or you can, They can. 

First Indefinite Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I could, Thou couldest, or couldst, He could : 

Plu. We could, Ye, or you could, They could. 

VIII. Shall. 
Indicative Mood, Future Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I shall, Thou shalt, He shall : 

Plu. We shall, Ye or you shall, They shall. 

Potential Mood, First Indefinite Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I should, Thou shouldest, or shouldst, He should: 

Plu. We should, Ye or you should, They should. 

This was anciently written sud, shud, and shuld. 

Have is derived from the Latin verb hahco, and had the same meaning in 
the Latin, as it has, in the English, It is used both as a principle and 
helping verb. As a principal verb, it is used in all the voices, moods and 
tenses, and was formerly undoubtedly a regular verb, as have-, kavid, havid, 
which in modem times has become contracted into had, in the imperfect 
tense and perfect participle active. Had is its only variation. 

Do is the same word, in reality, as our preposition . to, the one being 
written with a^ and the other with a t, they bring conversable letters. It 
is derived from the Gothic verb Taujan, to do, both words having the 
same meaning.. It is therefore, no great wonder that we use to as 



ETYMOLOGY. 67 

a prefix, in the Infinitive, to mark and designate that mood. When we 
use do and did, as helping verbs, they, in fact become compound and inte- 
gral parts of the principal verb, in all cases, and so do all helping verbs. 
And so it is with to in the Infinitive. Did is its only variation, as a help- 
ing verb. 

Will is also principal and auxiliary. As a principal verb it is used in all 
the voices, moods, and tenses, and is a regular active verb, ivill, willed, 
willed. We derive it directly from the Latin verb volo, both words having 
the same meaning. It is supposed that the Latins pronounced their v, as 
we do ic, giving it the sound, wolo. In the first person, it implies a prom- 
ise or assurance to a second or third person of doing or performing any ac- 
tion, as, "I will pay thee," "I will pay him." In the second person, it is 
a supposition, affirmation, or entreaty, as, "Thou wilt go with me." 
"Wilt thou go with me." In the third person, it is an assurance of the do- 
ing of an action, as "He will come to-morrow." It was anciently written 
woll, and from woll and not, we have our present negative toont which is 
probably all that remains of woll, in the English, it having become abso- 
lute, and will having taken its plaGe. Would is its only variation, as a 
helping verb. 

This is from the Greek, boulo, which the Latins contracted and changed 
to volo. It was first in English, written voll and then woll. Woll is still 
retained in Yorkshire, and some other countries in England. Present, voll, 
or woll, imperfect wolde, and sometimes written wold, which, in modern 
English, is changed to loould. 

May is derived from the Saxon verb, magan, and means to be able, and 
sometimes willing. In the first person, it denotes possibility, as, " I may 
go, or may not. In the second and third persons, signifies permission, as, 
"Thou may est go, he may go." 

Must is from mussen, Teutonic, and means it becomes, it needs, or it 
concerns. It implies duty, or obligation. It is therefore different from 
may, as it never leaves any thing to the choice of the person required to 
act. Its import of obligation is the same whether applied to the first, sec- 
ond, or third person, as "Imnst go, thou, must do it, he must come. Might 
is the only variation of May and Mast, and seems to have the same sense, 
as applied to either of these verbs, that is the will and power of the agent 
p to have acted, if he had been pleased to act, but end in no obligation. 

Can signifies to know, perceive, understand. In the Scotch dialect, it is 
still used as a principal verb and noun, as, "I kin nae where he'd gone." 
"Beyond the ken of mortals. To con, i. e. think over, or understand, and 
to cun, i. e. to direct, are- different spellings of the same word. I suppose 
it is from knomi, Greek. Its meaning is applied to the first, second or third 
persons, and always signifies the ability, or power of the agent to act, or to 
do whatever is required. So we have three words, can, cun ken. 

Shall is derived from scaelan or scylan, Saxon and means to be bound, 
obliged, or required. In the first person it promises the performance of an 
action, under a sense of obligation to do it, as, " I shall pay you to-morrow." 
In the second and third persons, it commands, under an idea of obligation 
to perform, as, "Thou shalt go with him. He shall come home. Should 
is its only variation, and seems to have the same meaning applied to the 
first, second, or third persons. 

As to the use of will and shall ; when inclination, or power of acting is 
expressed, will is the proper term : When obligation, duty or command is 
expressed, shall is the proper term. 

It was thought proper to give an entire scale of the helping verbs, as 
such, in the moods and tenses as far as they have moodal and tinsal form, 
presuming that the scholar will derive a better knowledge than from a de- 
scription. 

Jim and he, with their variations, icere and been, with the perfect par- 
ticiple active, form and assist in forming the Passive voice. Associated with 



'J8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

the present participle active, they form and assist in forming the middle 
voice. See those conjugations of the principal verb. Am and be are only 
associated with have in forming the conjugations of the Passive and Mid- 
dle voices. 

Have, with its variation had, forms and helps form the active, passive 
and middle voices. It is used with am and be, and their variations. 

Do, with its variation did, is only used in the active voice. It is only 
used in language of great solemnity and entreaty, and where great em- 
phasis and earnestness are required. In places where, it is used, the prin- 
pal verb can be formed as well without, as with it, conveying the same idea. 
It has much the effect of self and own, upon the pronouns. It is some- 
times used as an interrogative, as, "Do you love me ? " Its use is rarely 
elegant, except where it is used as a substitute to save the repetition of the 
principal verb, as, " John loves not his book, but James does." In such 
cases, it has much the same office to the principal verb, as the pronoun to 
the noun. 

Will, as a helping verb, is only used in the future. Would, its only vari- 
ation, is only used in the indefinites. 

Shall is always a helping verb, and always used in the future. Should is 
its only variation, and only used in the indefinites. 

Some writers, through carelessness, or ignorance, use shall and will, as 
though they were synonymous. A very slight attention to their meaning 
and proper uses, will discover and correct this error, as " He will [shall] 
have previous notice. u He shall [will] have served his apprenticeship." 

Can is only used in the present, future and perfect tenses, potential mood. 
Could is its only variation, and only used in the indefinites, potential mood. 

May and must are only used in the potential, present, perfect and future 
tenses. Might is their only variation, and used in the indefinites only. 

We have now discussed and fully explained the helping verbs, and their 
several variations, in the moods and tenses. Of these am, be-, have, do 
and will are used also, as principal verbs. Jim or be, is so far defective, as 
to be confined to the active voice. 

To give a more perfect idea of am, or be, as a principal verb, we will now 
conjugate it through the different moods and tenses. The others will be 
sufficiently understood, by referring to their previous conjugations, and their 
uses in the voices, moods and tenses, in their proper places, with the verb 
love, and all other principal verbs. 



§6. 



OF THE CONJUGATION OF THE PRINCIPAL VERBS. 



The formation of the Verb. 
Pres. Am, Imp. Was, Perf. part. been. 
Be, was, been. 

Teachers, in all cases, should be careful to habituate their scholars to 
form the verb, before they conjugate it. 

Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I am, Thou art,* He is. 

I be, Thou beist, He be. 

Plu, We are, Ye or you are, They are. 
We be, Ye or you be, They be. 

*This is the contraction of arest, the old English form. Are, our plural 
of this verb, is only a different spelling of the noun air. Cardell's essay, 
page 143. And our noun, art, is the same word. Was is sometimes im- 
properly used for . the verb, agreed, or contracted, as " Mr. White was 
[agreed] to build a barn, and to have the stable in part pay." 



ETYMOLOGY. „ 69 

Imperfect Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I was, Thou wast, He was. 

Plu. We were, Ye or you were, They were. 

Perfect Tense. 
] 2 3 

Sing. I have been, Thou havest, or hast been, He hath, or has been. 

Plu. We have been, Ye or you have been, They have been. 

Pluperfect Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I had been, Thou hadest, or hadst been, He had been. 

Plu. We had been. Ye or you had been, They had been. 

First Future Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I shall be, Thou shalt be, He shall be. 

Plu. We shall be, Ye or you shall be, They shall be. 

Second Future Tense. 
12 3 

r ing. I shall have been, Thou shalt have been, He shall have been. 
Plu. We shall have been, Ye or you shall have been, They shall havebeen. 

Imperative Mood, Present Tense. 
2 
Sing. Be, be thou, or do thou be. Plu. Be, be ye or you, or do ye or you be. 

Potential Mood, Present Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I can be, Thou canst be, He can be. 
Plu. We can be, Ye or you can be, They can be. 

First Future Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I can be, Thou canst be, He can be. 
Plu. We can be, Ye or you can be, They can be. 

The form of the verb, in this mood being the same, fn the present and 
first future tenses, the future is always designated, by an adverb of time, 
or a noun, as hereafter, tomorrow, next week, &c. 

First Indefinite. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I could be, Thou couldest, or couldst be, He could be. 

Plu. We could be, Ye or you could oe, They could be. 

Perfect Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I can have been, Thou canst have been, He can have been. 
Plu. We can have been, Ye or you can have been, They can have been. 

Second Indefinite Tense. 
1 2.3 [been.. 

Sing. I could have been, thou couldest, or couldst have been, he could have 
Plu. We could have been, ye or you could have been, they could havebeen. 

May and Must are used in the present, perfect and future, and would 
should and oitght, in the indefinites. 

Infinite Mood. Present, Tense. To be. First future Tense. To be. Present 
Tense. To have been. 

The future Tense, in this Mood, is designated by an adverb, or noun ag, 
"He is to be here tomorrow. 

Participles. — Present, Being. Perfect, been, Having been, Gerunds. — 
Present. By being, Perfect, By having been. 

Note. — I see no objection to the use of all our verbs, in the pluperfect, 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

in the infinitive, if any one should be pleased so to use them,— as, To had 
been, although I do not recollect ever to have seen this form used. 

We are greatly in want of a future form in our, participles, if one could 
be devised, which would be acceptable and elegant in form, and harmoni- 
ous, in sound, it wo aid be a great ornament and convenience to our lan- 
guage. 

In all the interrogative forms, in our language, the verb always precedes 
the nominative case, and we have no other way of shaping a question. Mr. 
Webster, in his grammar, has put these forms down, under the denomina- 
tions of indefinite tenses. This is wholly a mistake, for the sense is as 
definite, as any form we have, the positive or negative being reserved for 
the answer. 

Love. 

Formation. — Pres. Love. Imp. Loved. Per. Part. Loved. 

Conjugation.— Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 

1 2 3 

Sing. I love, Thou lovest, He loves, or loveth. 

Phi. We love, Ye or you love, They love. 

Imperfect Tense. 
Sing. I loved, Thou lovedst, He loved 
Plu. We Joved, Ye or you loved, They loved. 

These forms are used in the present and imperfect tenses, in the conju- 
gation of all our verbs. 

Perfect Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I have loved, Thou hast loved, He has, or hath loved. 

Plu. We have loved, Ye or you have loved, They have loved. 

Pluperfect Tense. 

12 3 

Sing. I had loved, Thou hadest, or hadst loved, He had loved. 
Plu. We had loved, Ye or you had loved, They had loved. 

First Future Tense. 

12 3 

Sing. I shall love, Thou shalt love, He shall love. 

Plu. We shall love, Ye or you shall love, They shall love. 

Second Future Tense. 

1 2 .3 

^ing. I shall have loved, Thou shalt have loved, He shall have loved. 
jtMu. We shall have loved, Ye or you shall have loved, they shall have loved. 
Will is also used in the future Tenses. 

Imperative mood. 

2 Present and Future Tenses. 
Sing. Love, Love thou, or do thou love. 

Plu. Love, Love ye or you, or do ye, or you love. 

Potential Mood, Present Tense. 
1. 2- 3. 

Sing. I can love, Thou canst love. He can love. 

Plu. We can love, Ye or you can love, They can love, 

First Future Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I can love, Thou canst love, He can love. 

Plu. We can love, Ye or you can love, They can love. 

The future tense, in this mood, is designated by a noun, or adverb. 
May aud Must are also used in this mood, in the present and future. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



71 



1. 



First Indefinite Tense. 

2. 3 

Sing. I could love, Thou couldest or couldst love, He could love. 
Plu. We could love, Ye or you could love, They could love 

Might, should, and would, are also used in this Tense. 

Perfect Tense. 
1. 2. 3- 

Sing. I can have loved, Thou canst have loved, He can have loved : 
Plu. We can have loved, Ye or you can have loved, They can have loved. 

"Second Indefinite Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Singular. 
I could have loved, Thou couldest have loved, He could have loved : 

Plural 
We could have loved, Ye or you could have loved, They could have loved. 
Would, should, and might are -used in this tense. 

Infinitive Mood, Present: To love. First Future: To love. Perfect 
Tense : To have loved. 

Participles. — Present, Loving. Perfect, Part. Having loved. 
Gerunds. — Present, By loving. Perfect, By having loved. 

N. B. In all the writings which I have seen, the opinion has been uni- 
formly maintained, that we have no future tense, in the infinitive. And 
we have none in foTm distinct from the present tense, but it is the same in 
form, as the present, the future being always designated by an adverb, 
noun, or adjective, after the same manner as in the potential present and 
future, and the present, past, and future, as used in the first indefinite in 
the potential. 

Passive Voice. 
Formation. — Present, x\m loved. Imperfect, was loved. Perfect Par- 
ticiple, Having been loved. 

Conjugation. — Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 

2. 3. 

Thou art loved, 
Thou beest loved, 
Ye or you are loved, 
Ye or you be loved, 

Imperfect Tense. 
2. 
Thou wast loved, 
Ye or you were loved, 

Pefect Tense. 
2. 
Singular. 
Thou hast been loved, 

Plural. 
Ye or you have been loved, 

Pluperfect Tense. 
2. 
Singular. 
Thou hadst been loved, 

Plural. 
Ye or you had been loved, 

First Future Tense. 

2. 3. 

Sing. I shall be loved, Thou shalt be loved, He shall be loved. 

Plu. We shall be loved, Ye or you shall be loved, They shall be loved 



Sing. 
Plu. 



Sing. 
Plu. 



1. 

I am loved, 
1 be loved, 
We are loved, 
We be loved, 



I was loved, 
We were loved, 

1. 



I have been loved, 
We have been loved, 

1. 

I have been loved, 
We had been loved, 

1. 



He is loved: 
He be loved. 
They are loved. 
They be loved. 



He was loved : 
They were loved. 



He has been loved : 
They have been loved. 

3. 

He had been loved; 
They had been loved. 






72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Second Future Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Singular. - 
Sing. I shall have been Thou shalt have been He shall have been 

loved, loved, loved : 

Plu. We shall have been Ye or you shall have been They shall havebeen 
loved, loved, loved. 

Imperative Mood, Present and Future Tenses. 
Sing. Beloved, Be thou loved, or do thou be loved: 

Plu. Be loved, Be ye or you loved, or do ye or you be loved. 

Potential Mood, Present Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can be loved, Thou canst be loved, He can be loved: 
Plu. We can be loved, Ye oryoucanbe loved, They can be loved. 

First Future Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can be loved, Thou canst be loved, He can be loved : 

Plu. We can be loved, Ye or you can be loved, They can be loved. 

First Indefinite' Tense. 

1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I could be loved, Thou couldstbe loved, He could be loved: 

Plu. We could be loved, Ye or you could be loved, They could be loved. 

Perfect Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can have been Thou canst have been He can have been 

loved, loved, loved : 

Plu. We can have been Ye or you can have been They can have been 
loved, loved, loved. 

Second Indefinite Tense. 

1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I could have been Thou couldst have been He could have been 
loved, loved, loved. 

Plural. 

We could have been Ye or you can have been They could havebeen 

loved, loved, loved. 

May and must are used in the present, first future, and perfect tenses; 
and should, loould, and might in the indefinite tenses. 

Infinitive Mood, Present Tense, To be loved. Perfect Tense, To have 
been loved. 

Third person singular, Adored be he. Plural, Adored be they. 

First Future Tense, To be loved. 

Participles. — Present, Being loved. Perfect, Having been loved. 
Gerunds. — Present, By being loved. Perfect, By having been loved. 

Middle Voice. 
Formation. — Present, Am loving. Imperfect, Was loving. Perfect 
Participle, Having been loving. 

Conjugation.— Indicative Mood, Present Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I am loving*, Thou art loving, He is loving, (a) 

Plu. We are loving, Ye or you are loving, They are loving. 



ETYMOLOGY. 73 

Imperfect Tense. 
1 2 3 

Sing. I was loving', Thou wast loving, He was loving, (a) 

Plu. We were loving, Ye or you were loving, They were loving. 

(a) We often see, in the newspapers of the present day, expressions 
like these, the house is being built, the cannon was being discharged. These 
forms of the verb ure uncouth, in expression, and do not belong to any 
form of conjugation, at present adopted and used, either in the active, pas- 
sive, or middle voice. All 1 can say of them is that they are inelegant and 
innovations upon the settled forms of the verbs, as used in the various 
voices, moods and tenses of the verbs, and betray a great want of taste, as 
well as a want of knowledge of pure and good English, in those, who use 
them. I do therefore advise their disuse. The forms of expression meant 
to be used, undoubtedly is, the lwuse is building. The cannon was firings 
which are elegant and good English, and conformable to the settled usages 
of the language. 

Perfect Tense. 
1 2 3 

Singular. 
I have been loving, Thou hast been loving, He has been loving. 

Plural. 
We have been loving, Ye or you have been loving, They have been loving, 

Pluperfect Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I had been loving, Thou hadst been loving, He had been loving. 
Plu. We had been loving, Ye or you had been loving, They had been loving. 

First Future Tense. 
12 3 

Sing. I shall be loving, Thou shalt be loving, He shall be loving. 
Plu. We shall be loving, Ye or you shall be loving, They shall be loving. 

Second Future Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I shall have been Thou shalt have been He shall have been 

loving, loving, loving : 

Plu. We shall have been Ye or you shall have been They shall have been 
loving, loving, loving. 

Imperative Mood, Present and Future Tenses. 
Sing. Be loving, Be thou loving, or do thou be loving : 

Plu. Be loving, Be ye or you loving, or do ye or you be loving. 

Potential Mood, Present Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can be loving, Thou canst be loving, He can be loving: 
Plu. We can be loving, Ye or you can be loving, They can be loving. 

First Future Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can be loving, Thou canst be loving, He can be loving: 

Plu. We can be loving, Ye or you can be loving, They can be loving. 

The future tdnse, in the Middle, as in the Active and Passive voices, is 
designated by a noun, or adverb. 

Perfect Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I can have been Thou canst have been He can have been 

loving, loving, loving : 

Plu. We can have been Ye or you can have been They can have been 
loving, loving, loving. 

4 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

First Indefinite Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I could be loving, Thou couldstbe loving, He could be loving: 
Plu. We could be loving, Ye or you could be loving, They could be loving. 
Second Indefinite Tense. 
1. 2. 3. 

Sing. I could have been Thou couldst have been He could have been 
loving, loving, loving. 

Plural. 

We could have been Ye or J-ou could have been They could have been 

loving, loving, loving. 

May and must are also used in the present, future and perfect tenses; 
♦and would, should and might, in the indefinite tenses. 

Infinitive Mood, Present Tense, To be loving. Perfect Tense, To have 
been loving. 

Future Tense, To be loving. 

Participles. — Present, Being loving. Perfect, Having been loving. 
Gerunds. — Present, By being loving. .Perfect, By having been loving. 

The Imperfect Tenses of verbs, which form their participles, by an in- 
flection, or termination distinct from those tenses of the verbs, should never 
be substituted, nor indiscriminately used for the participles, in forming the 
compound tenses. This error has become, in some measure, fashionable, 
U)f late, even among our best writers, as I have wrote, for I have written- 
It would be equally grammatical to say I have was, for I have been. See 
class 3d, of irregular verbs. 

We have now given a full scale of the auxiliary and principal verbs. 
^All the principal verbs, except am, are conjugated like love. 

In forming the inflections of the verbs, in those tenses, where the aux- 
iliaries are used, the principles remain the same, the auxiliaries undergoing 
all the changes. Where more than one auxiliary is used, the first only is 
varied. 

Some suppose that the neuter verb is contained under the passive form, 
as "I am arrived." But it is worthy of notice that many of our passive 
verbs assume no object after them, and that those that do generally take 
the nominative, seldom, if ever, the objective. And all the distinction 
that is between active and neuter verbs is, that the active take the objec- 
tive after them, and neuter the nominative. 

Some suppose that we have no passive verbs, because they are made, by 
associating the auxiliaries with the perfect participle active, and not by va- 
riations of the terminations. It should also be recollected that conjuga- 
tion is much the same to verbs that declension is to nouns ; neither mean- 
ing exclusively the variation of terminations, but the peculiar situation and 
relation of words to each other in a sentence. And we can no more handle 
the verbs without the different voices, moods and tenses, than the nouns 
and pronouns, without the cases and genders. 

If we have no inflections of the verbs, except what we make, by varying 
the terminations, we are, in fact, reduced to the first, second and third per- 
sons singular, present, and the first and second person singular, of the im- 
perfect, and the present participle active of the principal verbs. The bare 
exhibition of this fact, which would make the poverty of our language 
complete, is sufficient without a comment The auxiliaries have obtained 
euch an established use, in forming the moods and tenses of our verbs, 
that it would make an entire revolution, if they should be discarded. And, 
in fact, we should be compelled to begin a new, and form an entirely diff- 
erent language, and upon a different idiom. 

In adjusting the grammar to our language, we should study its peculiar 



ETYMOLOGY. 75 

idiom distinctly from all others. The idioms of all languages are more, or 
less radically different, and it is of no avail to endeavor to warp one to the 
other, for after all, each will maintain its peculiarities of form and phrase, 
and wrong grammatical arrangments and defininitions will tend only to 
weaken the language, mar its beauty, and hinder its refinement. And 
this has been, hitherto, a fruitful source of embarrassment to the English 
language. For it has generally by our own literati, been considered to be a 
lingo, or corruption of other languages incapable of reduction to any regu- 
lar system of rules, as a language, within itself. And, so far as I have 
been acquainted with educated men, in our own language, they have gen- 
erally made it a boast of their education, as relating to our own language, 
and the only one of any practical use to them, that they knew nothing of 
it except from its similarity to the Latin and Greek. But whatever may 
have been its origin is one thing, and the established form and character, 
which use and custom have given it is another. And when we shall have 
gone far enough, in the cultivation of it, to see its settled character, we 
shall then be convinced, that it is one of the first, in the world, for dignity, 
copiousness, perspicuity, energy, flexibility and variety of expression, and 
would yield to none, if properly cultivated. As an inducement now to 
cultivate our own language, in preference to any other, we have the proud 
satisfaction to know that it is destined eventually to be spoken by a larger 
population, than any other language on the face of the earth. 

All languages, from necessity, have an analogy, in grammatical con- 
struction and nearly the same classification, as to parts of speech, being 
all made of words expressing common ideas, which are nearly the same 
among all people, the great grammatical difference being the different man- 
ner of adjectiving the verbs and nouns, the different manner of inflecting 
words, and the different manner of associating them together* 

Some have supposed that we have but three tenses, the present, past, and 
future, and no helping verbs, holding all the verbs to be principal, and, 
when more than one is used, to put the second in the infinitive after the 
first having a participle aasociated, in some cases: as, I do love ; I do to 
love. 1 have loved, making have the verb, past tense and loved the partici- 
ple, agreeing with 1. I can love, I can to love. I could love; I could to 
love. I have been loved, making have a verb past tense, and been and 
loved participles agreeing with I. So when the present participle is used. 
Some allow a future tense, and hold the Infinitive to be expressive of it. 
Webster's Grammar. 75. 

This theory is so opposed to the nature and genius of our language, and 
the beautiful and superb structure of our verbs, as formed and established, 
by the common use and consent of all classes of people, that it has never 
gone beyond the theory of the few notional persons, who promulgated it. 
And it should be noticed that all the refined and cultivated languages 
agree pretty well, asto the moods and tenses of the verbs. 

The conjugation of the English verbs through the voices; moods and 
tenses, by means of the pronouns and auxiliaries, is not a useless inflection; 
but a beautiful and regular display of them, and indispensable to the lan- 
guage, and a right knowledge of them and their various uses, applications 
and meanings. 



§7. 



CATALOGUE OF THE IRREGULAR VERBS. 



Pres. Imp. Past. 



Arise, 

Abide, 




arose, 
abode, 


Am, 
Awake, 
Bear, [forthbr 


big] 


was, 

awoke, 

bare, 



arisen, 

abode, 

been, 

awaked, awaken, 

born, 



76 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Pres r 


Imp. 


Part. 


Bear, [suffer} 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat,, 


beat, 


, beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent, 


bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bid, 


bade, bad, bid, 


bidden, bid. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound, bounden. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, brake, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst, bursten. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Beset, [attack} 


beset, 


beset. 


Bet, 


bet, 


bet. 


Be wet, 


bewet, 


bewet. 


Blurt, 


blurted, blurt, 


blurted, blurt. 


Be stick, 


bestuck, 


bestuck. 


Bethink, 


bethought, 


bethought. 


Bake, 


baked, 


baken, baked. 


Backbite,. 


backbit, 


backbitten. 


Befall, 


befell, 


befallen. 


Become, 


became, 


become. 


Beget, 


begat, begot, 


begotten. 


Behold, 


beheld, 


beheld, beholden. 


Bespeak, 


bespake, bespoke. 


bespoken. 


Bespit, 


bespat, 


bespitten, 


Bestride, 


bestrode, 


bestridden. 


Bid, 


bade, 


bidden. 


Be take , 


betook, 


betaken. 


Chide, 


chid, chode, 


chidden. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, 


caught. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen. 


Cleave, [adhere} 


clave, 


cleaved. 


Cleave, [split} 


clove, cleft, 


cloven, cleft. 


Climb, 


climed, clum, 


climbed, clum. 


Cling, 


clang, clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clothen, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Crow, 


crowed, crew, 


crowed, crew, crowne 


Creep, 


creeped, crope, crept, 


creeped, crept. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Chat, 


chatted, chat, 


chatted, chat. 


Dare, 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Dig, 


digged, dug, 


digged, dug. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Deal, 


dealed, delt, 


dealed, delt. 


Disspead, 


dissped, 


dissped. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed, drempt, 


dreamed, drempt. 


Drive, 


drove, drave, 


driven. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunken. 


Eat, 


ate, 


eaten. 



Pres. 

Fall, 

Feed, 

Fight, 

Find, 

Flee, 

Fling, 

Fly, 

Fold, 

Forcast, 

Forgive, 

Forbear, 

Forbid, 

Forgo, 

Forknow, 

Forsake, 

Forrun, 

Forget, 

Forsee, 

Forshow, 

Fori ay, 

Forsay, 

Forspend, 

Freeze, 

Gild, 

Geld, 

Gird, 

Give, 

Go,* 

Grave, 

Grind, 

Grow, 

Have, 

Hang, 

Heat, 

Heave, 

Help, 

Hew, 

Hide, 

Hit, 

Hold, 

Hurt, 

Knit, 

Know, 

Lay, [forthbring, 

•place] 
Lead, 
Leave, 
Lend, 
Let, 

Lie, [down] 
Load, 

Loose, [unbind] 
Lose, [suffer loss] 
Light, 
Make, 
Meet, 



. ETYMOLOGY. 




Imp, 


Part. 


fell, 


fallen. 


fed, 


fed. 


fought, 


fo lighten, fought. 


found, 


found. 


fled, 


fled. 


flang, flung, 


flung. 


flew, 


flown. 


folded, 


folded, folden. 


forcast, 


forcast. 


forgave, 


forgiven. 


forbare, forbore, 


forborn. 


forbade, 


forbidden. 


forwent, 


forgone . 


fork new, 


for known. 


forsook, 


forsaken. 


forran, 


forrun. 


forgat, 


forgotten. 


forsaw, 


forseen. 


forshewed, forshew, 


forshowed, forshown. 


forlaid, ^ 


forlaid. 


forsaid, 


forsaid. 


forspent, 


forspent. 


froze, 


frozen. 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


gelded, gelt, 


gelded, gelt. 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


gave, 


given. 


went,* 


gone. 


graved, 


graven. 


ground, 


ground. 


grew, 


grown. 


had, 


had. 


hung, hanged, 


hung, hanged. 


heated, het, 


heated, het. 


hove, heft, 


hoven, heft. 


helped, helpt, holpe, 


helped, helpt, holpen 


hewed, 


hewed, hewn. 


hid, 


hidden, hid. 


hit, 


hit. 


held, 


holden, held. 


hurt, 


hurt. 


knitted, knit, 


knitted, knit, 


knew, 


known. 


laid, layed, 


laid, layed. 


led, 


led. 


left, 


left. 


lent, 


lent. 


let, 


letten, let. 


lay, 


lain. 


lade, loaded, 


laden, loaded. 


loosed, 


loosed. 


lost, 


lost. 


lighted, lit, 


lighted, lit. 


made, 


made. 


met, 


met. 



77 



*Past tense of wend. 



78 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



Pres. 
Melt,- 

Mow, 

Mistake, 

Misgive, 

Overdo, 

Overtake, 

Overgrow, 

Oversee, 

Overlay, 

Overlie, 

Fen, 

Put, 

Read, 

Rend, 

Rid, 

Ride, 

Ring, 

Rive, 

Run, 

Saw, 

See, 

Seek, 

Sell, 

Send, 

Set, [stop] 

Shake, 

Shape, 

Shave, 

Shear, 

Shed, 

Shine, 

Show, 

Shew, 

Shoe, 

Shoot, 

Shrink, 

Shred, 

Shut, 

Sing, 

Sink, 

Sit, [down] 

Slay, 

Slide, 

Sling, 

Slunk, 

Slit, 

Smite, 

Sow, 

Speak,- 

Speed, 

Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spread, 

Spring, 

Stand, 

Stave, 

Steal, 



Imp. 
melted, molt, 
mowed, 
mistook, 
misgave, 
overdid, 
overtook, 
overgrew, 
oversaw, 
overlaid, 
overlay, 
penned, pent, 
put, 
read, 

rended, rent, 
rid, 
rode, 
rang, 
rived, 
ran, 
sawed, 
saw, 
sought, 
sold, 
sent, 
set, 
shook, 
shaped, 
shaved, 
shore, sheared, 
shed, 

shone, shined, 
showed, 
shewed, shew, 
shod, 
shot, 

shrank, shrunk, 
shreded, shred, 
shut, 
sang, 

sank, sunk, 
sat, 
slew, 
slid, 

slang, slung, 
slank, slunk, 
slitted, slit, 
smote, 
sowed, 
spake, spoke, 
sped, 

span, spun, 
spat, spit, 
split, 
spread, 

sprang, sprung, 
stood, 

stove, staved, 
stole, 



Part. 
melted, molten, 
mown, mowed, 
mistaken, 
misgiven, 
overdone, 
overtaken, 
overgrown, 
overseen. 
v overlaid, 
overlain, 
penned, pent, 
put. 
read. 

rended, rent, 
rid. 

ridden, rid. 
rung. 

riven, rived, 
run. 
B sawn. 

seen, formerly sene, 

sought. 

sold. 

sent. 

set. 

shaken. 

shaped, shapen. 

shaved, shaven. 

shorn, sheared. 

shed. 

shined. 

shown, showed. 

shewn. 

shodden, shod. 

shotten, shot. 

shrunken, shrunk. 

shreded, shred. 

shut, 

sung. 

sunken, sunk. 

sitten, sit. 

slain. 

slidden. 

slung. 

slunken, slunk. 

slitten, slitted, slit, 

smitten, smit. 

sown. 

spoken. 

sped. 

spun. 

spitten, spit. 

split. 

spread 

sprung, 

stood. 

stoven 

stolen. 



ETYMOLOGY. 



7J 



Pres. 
Strike, 
String 1 , 
Strive, 
Strow, 
Swear, 
Sweat, 
Swell, 
Swim, 
Swing-, 
Sting, 
Take, 
Teach, 
Tear, 
Tell, 
Think, 
Thrive, 
Throw, 
Thrust, 
Toss, 
Tread, 
Unbend, 
Undersell, 
Undertake, 
Underwrite, 
Wax, 
Wear, 
Weave, 
Weep, 
Wend. 
Win, 
Wind, 
Work, 
Wring, 
Write, 



Imp, 
struck, 

strung, stang, 
strove, 

strew, strewed, 
swore, sware, 
sweat, 
swelled, 
swam, 
swang, 
stang, 
took, 
taught, 
tore, tare, 
told, 
thought, 
throve, thrived, 
threw, 
thrust, 
tossed, tost, 
trod, trode, 
unbended, unbent, 
undersold, 
undertook, 
underwrote, 
waxed, 
wore, ware, 
wove, 
wept, 

wended, went, 
won, 
wound, 

worked, workt, wrought, 
wrang, 
wrote, 



Part. 
stricken, 
strung, 
striven. 

strown, strowed. 
sworn, 
sweat, 
swollen, 
swum, 
swung, 
stung. 
taken, 
taught, 
torn, 
told, 
thought, 
thriven, thrived, 
thrown, 
thrust, 
tossed, tost, 
trodden. 

unbended, unbent, 
undersold, 
undertaken, 
underwritten, 
waxed, waxen, 
worn, 
woven, 
wept. 

wended, went, 
won. 
wound. 

worked, workt, wrought, 
wrung, 
written. 



Some have classed the verbs into three conjugations : 1. Those making the 
perfect participle in ed, or its contraction t. 2. Those making the perfect 
participle in ght. 3. Those making the perfect participle in en. But, as 
the verbs of these terminations are all conjugated alike, this was more a 
matter of curiosity, than substance, and has never been adopted. 

Different languages have different ways of inflecting their verbs. Some, 
the Greek and Latin, performed most of these offices, by changing the 
terminations, by prefixes, or otherwise varying the spelling, retaining the 
radical letters. Modern languages, particularly the English, perform these 
offices mostly by auxiliaries, which, though not so concise, is more copious 
and definite, and is as much a change, in meaning, of the verb, as if done 
by a variation of terminations. For these variations of the terminations, 
in any language, are only the contractions of other words, added to the 
radical verb, in the different voices, moods and tenses, of the language, in 
which they are used, to vary the significations of the verb. It can, there- 
fore, make no odds whether the words denoting these variations of the 
verbs, in all their several inflections, are used at the end, or beginning of 
the verb. It is, therefore, now in vain to reject, or ridicule our method of 
adjectiving our verbs, since the people have adopted and sanctioned the 
practice and will forever use it. 



m 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 




CHAPTER VIII. 

OF PARTICIPLES. 

Participles are words derived from verbs, and partake of the 
nature of verbs, adjectives and nouns, (x) 

(x) Wherin they express action, they have the nature of verbs; wherin 
they agree with nouns, they have the nature of adjectives ; wherein they 
express substance, they have the nature of nouns. 

Some suppose the participles to be only a different form of the verbs, and 
treat of them under that head. But as they are essentially different from 
the verbs, it would have been as much out of order to have gone into a dis- 
cussion of them, among the verbs, as of the pronouns, among the nouns. 

That they are a class really distinct from the verb, is manifest from this : 
Verbs have voices, moods, tenses, numbers and persons : Participles have 
numbers, persons, cases and genders. 

Participles, in their adjective nature, like adjectives, show the circum- 
stance of their nouns: as, "This is my beloved son." &4 He is a promising 
youth." 

Participles are of two kinds, Present and Perfect. 

The following is the rule, whereby to know, when a word is a participle, 
whether present or past. 1. It agrees with a noun, as an adjective: 2. in 
syntax, it conforms to .the rules of an active or neuter verb : 3. or is abso- 
lute in the nominative, with a noun, or adverb. When it has none of these 
offices, it becomes some other part of speech. 

§ 1. OF PRESENT PARTICIPLES 

Present participles relate to the present circumstance of th? 
noun : as " She is a loving mother." They are formed by adding 
ing to the verb : as, Love, loving. 

When single, they are of the active voice. They are declined like ad- 
jectives. 



Sing. 

Fern. 
Loving, 
Loving, 
Loving, 

Plu. 

Fern. 
Loving, 
Loving, 
Loving, 

Participles, like adjectives, have the degrees of comparison, 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Loving. More loving, Most loving, 

Though generally compared by help of more, and most, they are capable 



±\om. 
Poss, 
Obj. 



Nom. 
Poss. 
Obj. 



Mas. 
Loving, 
Loving, 
Loving, 



Mas. 
Loving, 
Loving, 
Loving, 



Neu. 
Loving, 
Loving, 
Loving, 



Neu. 
Loving, 
Loving, 
Loving, 



ETYMOLOGY. 



81 



of comparison, by varying the termination, after the manner of adjectives, 
which wants only the sanction of custom, to be called the eleganter form, as, 

Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Loving, Lovinger, Lovingest. 

The comparitive and superlative degrees are declined like the positive. 

§ 2. OF PERFECT PARTICIPLES. 

Perfect participles agree with their nouns in the past tense. 
And though the circumstance of the noun may be either present, 
past or future, the act denoted by the participle is always past : 
as, " He is a loved child, he was a loved child, he will be a loved 
child." 

Perfect participles generally end in d, ed, t, ght, or en. But we have 
many verbs, which observe no rule in this respect, and whose perfect par- 
ticiples can be known only by their relation to the sentence. 

Perfect participles are declined like adjectives. 







Sing. 






Mas. 


Fern. 


Neu. 


Norn. 


Loved, 


Loved, 


Loved, 


Poss. 


Loved, 


Loved, 


Loved, 


Obj. 


Loved, 


Loved, 
Phi. 


Loved, 




Mas. 


Fern, 


Neii. 


Nom. 


Loved, 


Loved, 


Loved, 


Poss. 


Loved, 


Loved 8 


Loved, 


Obj. 


Loved, 


Loved, 


Loved, 



N. B. The present participle of the active voice and the present and 
perfect participles of the middle voice, are declined like loving, and the 
perfect participle active and the present and perfect passive are declined 
like loved. 

These, like adjectives, have the degrees of comparison : as, 
Pos. Comp. Sup. 

Loved, More loved, Most loved, 

Or, 
Loved, Loveder, Lovedest, 

See observations on the comparison of loving. The comparative and 
superlative degrees are declined like the positive. 



CHAPTER IX. 

OF GERUNDS. 

Gerunds are words derived from verbs, and partake of the 
nature of verbs and nouns. 

Some, perhaps, may think this a novelty. But though it may be in name 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

it is not in fact ; for this class of words has been long in use, in the Ian* 
guage : 1, Under the name of participles governed by prepositions : 2, Of 
gerundial participles. That they are not participles is evident from three 
things, wherein they differ from participles: 1, They have no concordance 
with any other words : 2, They- are governed by prepositions, in the ob- 
jective case, after the manner of nouns : 3, They express action altogether, 
but no quality. 

Gerunds are confined entirely to the objective case, singular number, 
neuter gender. See Rs. 133, 49. 

When a participle is found in this condition, it always becomes a gerund. 
See rule, 37. 

They have been considered, by some, to be nothing more than the parti- 
ciple ; by others, the participles associated with prepositions ; and by oth- 
ers, gerundial participles governed by prepositions. From the definition 
above given of the gerund, it is plain that neither of these definitions was 
sufficient. Of course, we could not expect students to have clear and dis- 
tinct ideas of this elass of speech. They are formed of present and perfect 
participles, and in conformity to participles, in this respect, should be called 
present and perfect gerunds. 

We have many pure gerunds, which have been taken to be pure nouns, 
merely because the sentences are eliptical : as, "The art of speaking," i.e. 
of speaking language. Or the art of spcaJcing is peculiar to man. So of 
"the power of thinking." See R. 37, p 249. 

Scholars should be very careful to supply the elipsis, which will save 
many mistakes, both as to the class and syntax of words. 



CHAPTER X- 

j 

OF PREPOSITIONS. 

§ 1. OF THE NATURE AND USE OF PREPOSITIONS, 

Prepositions show relation between nouns, explain, or qualify verbs, and 
govern the objective case, as "He went from Boston to Washington." 
44 She is above disguise." 

Prepositions are of two kinds : Separable, and inseparable. The sep- 
erable are used to show relation, qualify and govern. The inseparable are 
only used in composition with other words. 

§ 2. OF THE SEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

The following are the principal ones in use : a, above, about, according- 
to, asto, after, against, among, at, amongst, adown, abaft, along with, be- 
fore, behind, below, beneath, beside, between, betwixt, by, but, down, du- 
ring, else, for, from, fromoff, in, into, near, nearto, next, next to, o, of, off, 
off from, over, overagainst, overat, out, outof, outfrom, offfrom, on, per, 
through, throughout, trans, to, toward, under, underneath, up, upon, upto, 
upwith, unto, with, within, without. 

We have probably a few more words, which are occasionally used as 
prepositions. 

Many writers have run the prepositions into detailed classes, which an- 
swers no purpose but show. When properly used, they carry their own 
meaning with sufficient clearness. The main thing wanted, is to know 
their own origin and signification. 

Some few cases probably happen, wherein prepositions become nouns, 
or adverbs. But they are few, and should never be carried out of their 



ETYMOLOGY. 83 

own class, unless the sense, clearly requires it. And this should always be 
determined by reference to the definition, according to the rules hereto- 
fore given, for determining the several classes, to which all words be- 
long. If we adhere closely to these rules, we shall probably find that 
words do not shift so often from one class to another, as has been generally 
supposed. 

They are elegantly used as composit parts of other words, and should 
be preincorporated with them, as, overtake, understand, &c. But regard 
should be had to the effect, which prepositions have upon the meaning of 
words ; for, in many cases, the prefix and affix of the preposition, makes 
entirely a different meaning, as, overrun, run over, upset, setup, &c. 

Prepositions, in English, in a great measure, supply our want of cases, 
and show those relations between nouns, which, in other languages, are, 
in a great measure, expressed by cases. If we look carefully into the 
definition above given of prepositions and their uses, in language, we shall 
see how necessary it is to understand them properly, and the relations they 
represent- 

Words are said to be the wings of ideas. Prepositions are the spirit of 
language. u l came from Boston to Portland. " Here, from represents the 
departure from Boston, and the whole intermediate distance, and to the 
termination of the journey, and the act of arrival. The mere speak- 
ing of the word, from, transports the hearer, in idea, the whole of that 
distance. So of all prepositions of passage and termination. 

Prepositions are derived wholly from nouns and verbs. Those derived 
from nouns are expressive of place, rest, boundary, passage, or opening, or 
the inner and outer parts of places and things. And these 1 suppose, in 
reality, to be derived from verbs ultimately. For I suppose all the nouns, 
from which prepositions are derived, are the past participles, or third person 
singular of verbs, in the Saxon and Gothic, which are now entirely lost, 
and which have left no trace of their origin. 

Those, which are known to be derived from verbs, are the imperative 
moods of Saxon and Gothic verbs, which have become obsolete, in the 
English. Some few are probably the compounds of nouns and verbs. 

Tha.t the prepositions may be the better understood, in their use and ap- 
plication, I shall give a catalogue of them, showing the etymology of each, 
and the meaning of the word, from which each one' is derived, so far as it 
can be ascertained. The want of a full and clear knowledge of the mean- 
ing of the several prepositions, has been a great embarrasment, in the use 
and application of them. 

A is derived from the Saxon preposition on, which meant in, as, "He is 
a board, or on board the ship, i. e. in the ship. 1 Took, 370, 424. 

About is probably a compound of on and the Saxon noun bota. Bota sig- 
nified the extremity or boundary of any place, or thing, and was written, in 
that language, onbota, onbuta^ and abuta, meaning in, or within the line, ex- 
tremity, or boundary* of any thing, or place. 1 Took, 361. (a) 

(a) From this source we derive our word butt, a boundary, and abutment 
the support of a bridge, at each end. 

Accordingto is compounded of according* find to, according, being from the 
verb accord, i. e agreeing to, or witk. 

Above, bove is from the Saxon noun onbufan, hight, or head, and 
means in the hight, top or head of any place, or thing. 1 Took, 366, 7, 8. 

Asto, is a compound of as and to. 

After or aft is from the Gothic noun, aftaro, Saxon, azter, Dutch, agtu 
and achter, Danish, after. It has been used as a noun and adjective in the 
Saxon, English, and most of the northern languages. Took supposes it to 
be the comparative of aft. If so, it would probably compare in this way, 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

aft, after, of test. We still use it as a noun, and adjective, as well as a pre- 
position, in the modern English. 

Against, formerly written agenst, in the Saxon was written ongengen, a 
compound of on and gengen. Junius thinks that gengen is derived from 
geond. We have seen before that a is the corruption of on. We there- 
fore make our word again of a and gengen, by droping the last gen. And 
this will appear the more natural, when we consider that e, till lately, was 
pronounced Kke our a long. Therefore agen was pronounced agan. When 
the i after the ga and st after n were added, I do not know. Bailey, in his 
dictionary, derives it from agen, or ongean, Saxon, entgegen, Tuetonic. 
Took says he believes it to be the past participle of some verb, whatever it 
may be, from which the collateral Dutch verb gigenen, to meet, encounter, 
or oppose, because the Dutch employ jegens, the Danes mood and imod, 
from their verb mOder, the Sweeds emnt, from their verb mota, all having 
the same meaning. The Danish and Swedish verbs, and also our verb to 
meet, are derived from the Gothic verb, motgan. And so are the Dutch 
mocten and gemocten. 1 Took, 344. 

Among, amongst, in the Saxon gemang, of the verb gemengan. Gemen- 
gan is the verb mengan, or mengian with the ge prefixed, and means to 
mix, or mingle. Took says, emong, among, amonges, amongst, is the past 
participle gemceneged, gemeneged, or as the Dutch write it gemengd, ge- 
mengt, and the old English authors megnt, of the Saxon verb gemcenegan, 
gemenegan, and the Gothic verb, tamaingan. Or rather the preter perfect 
gemang, gemong, gemung, i. e. amang, among, amung, of the same verb 
mceno-an, mengan, used as participles without the terminations od, ad, or cd. 
It was usual with the Saxons to prefix, especially, to their past participles, 
A, M, Be, For, and Ge. As late as Chaucer, amonges was used as a par- 
ticiple. 

At is the contraction of the past participle, actum, of the Latin verb, ago, 
to do, act ox perform. It is made, by dropping the c and the termination um. 
And it was a very common practice among the Latins, especially the poets, 
to drop the termination um, in using their past participles. 1. Took, 294. 
Webster says, at, ad and to are from aha, Chalean and Hebrew, and are the 
same. 

Adown, or doion is the Saxon past participle, d>uren, from the verb durian, 
to sink, plunge, dive, or dip. The a, the corruption of the Gothic preposi- 
tion, on, our in, as we have seen before, was a common prefix in the Saxon, 
as on was in the Gothic. And we have adopted the same prefix a, into the 
English, from the Saxon, with the same meaning, and for the same pur- 
pose. Therefore, doion and adoicn are the same word, with the a prefixed 
to give a little more force and expression to the word. 1 Took, 365. 

Abaft, is a compound of the Latin preposition, ab, from, and our noun or 
adjective aft. It is a mere prefix to give a little more force and strength to 
the word aft. It is a word, in common use among seamen, as abaft the 
the windlass, main mast, &c, and i& seldom, if ever, used by any other 
class of people. 

Along, is a compound of a and long. 

Alongwith, is a compound of a, long and with. 

Before, behind, below, beside, besides and beneath, are the compounds of 
be, the imperative mood of am, or be, and the nouns, fore, hind, low, side 
and neath, need no farther explanation. Neath is from the Saxon noun, 
nedre, and Gothic noun, nadr, i. e. bottom. Our noun, nadir, is probably 
from the same. 

BetiDccn, formerly written twene, aticenc, and bytwenc, and for which, 
perhaps, no other language has a corresponding preposition. It is a com- 
pound of the Saxon imperative be, and twegen, twain. 1 Took 329. Car- 
dell's Essay p. 95, derives it from twa ) but this is a mistake, 



ETYMOLOGY. £5 

Betwixt, by Chaucer written bytwyxt, is the Saxon imperative be, and the 
Gothic adjective twos, two. The Saxons wrote it beticeohs, betweox, betweex, 
byticyxt, beiicyx. 1 Took 329. 

By, bi, or be, as it has been variously written, in the language, at different 
times, is the Saxon imperative by, of the verb beon, am, or be. The Saxons 
wrote it indifferently, bi, be, big. 1 Took, 326. 

Down is the same as adown, the emphatic prefix, a, being ommitted. 
See adown. 

During, is from the Latin verb, duro, to harden, endure, last or continue. 
Downin, compound of down and in, as downin the well. 
Downfrom, compound of down and from. 
Downto, compound of down and to. 

Despite, despitof, from despit, French, meaning envy, malice, &c. It is 
used as a noun and preposition ; but mostly as a preposition. 

Downthrough, compound of down and through. Balsh's Lect. 115. 

Except, is the imperative of the same verb, and is used mostly as a verb. 
It is from the Latin verb, excepio, and means to take away, or from. 

Else, is the imperative of the Saxon verb, alesan, or alysan, meaning to 
send away, exclude, &c. 

For, is from the Gothic noun fraikina, cause. It was formerlyj often 
written fra. It always means cause, in every place where it is used, and 
is incapable of any other meaning, notwithstanding Johnson and some 
others, to show a great deal of learned ignorance, have given it a great many 
different significations. 1 Took 299. 

From or fro, is from the Gothic noun frum, and means begining-^ origin, 
source, fountain, author. As we use it now, it has acquired also a meanino- 
of departure and progress. As, " I came from Boston to Portland. " Here 
from signifies the beginning of the journey, that is the departure from Boston 
and the progress from Boston to Portland, and to signifies the termination 
of the journey, or the arrival at Portland. This preposition was formerly 
written either fro, ox from. And though many of our dictionary writers 
have given so many and various interpretations to it, it has never, in any 
case, but one meaning, to wit : begining and proceding. 1 Took 378. 

Fromoff, compound of from and off. 

Hors and dehors are French, s,nd from the Latin adverb, foris, abroad, or 
out of doors. Foris is probably derived from thura, Greek; daur, Gothic 
and dora, dura, dure, thura, thurt, Saxon, a door. 1 Took 270. 

In, the old English, Saxon and Gothic innan. innen, is the inner part of 
the breast inclosing the heart and other vitals, and what is commonly called 
the chest. It is also the inner part of any thing. Lincoln's Inn. An in 
of Court An inndwelling place. A travellers inn, &c. It is still, some 
times, used as a verb . as, " To in the harvest." Its participles are inning 
and inned. The adjectives are, inn, inner, inncst. The adverbs are, innly, 
innerly, inwardly. It is undoubtedly the corruption of the third person 
singular of some old lost verb of the Gothic, or some more ancient language. 
It had also a secondary sense of cave, cell, or cavern, and was written inna 
and inne, and, in the Saxon, signified a tavern. 1 Took 370. 

Latterly, it is very little used, except as a preposition, and in composition 
with other words. 

Nigh, near, next, is from the Saxon adjective nih,neh, neahg. The adjec- 
tive, in English, is nigh or near, nearer, nigher, nearest, next. Some prefer 
to use it as a preposition. Others prefer to have them, in all cases, adjectives 
and to introduce to for the governing preposition. For my own part, I 
think it is a matter of indifference provided we fully understand their mean- 
ing and application. I Took 355. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Neath, Saxon neothan, neothe, Dutch neden, Danish ned, German niedcre, 
Sweedish nedre, neder, is the same word and same meaning as nadir, and is 
from the Gothic noun nadr, Saxon nedre, the point in the heavens, under- 
foot, or opposite the zenith. It is not used much as a preposition alone, hut 
is generally compounded with be and under : as, underneath, beneath. 

O, is probably the contraction of on, as one o'clock, i. e.one on the clock. 

Of, is the Gothic of, and Saxon of, from the Gothic noun, afara, posterity, 
offspring, from which is the Saxon noun, afora. J Took 299. These nouns 
in their languages, always meant offspring, posterity, consequence, successor, 
son, 8fC. It is used as a prefix to mean son, or descendant, as, O' Conner, 
O'Brien, &c. It is the affix in the Russian, as, Peterhof 1 Took 299. 

Off. Took says he does not know the origin of this word, but is inclined 
to think it is derived from a lost noun in the Gothic. It seems to partake 
of the meaning of from and of, as, "I am off," i. e. away from this place. 
"I will orfsnt my account against yours, and pay you the balance." It 
comes very near the sense of outof t as, " I will take my bill outof yours, and 
pay you the balance." Whatever may be its origin, I believe it to be the 
remains of two words, because it always has a double meaning, and that of 
is one of them, and that the other is wholly lost. It always carries with it, 
more or less, the idea of extraction, or derivation. And I incline to the 
opinion, that the lost word is the same from which out is derived, because 
its sense savors so much of that preposition. But these are conjectures, 
and must be received only for what they are worth. Perhaps it is com- 
pounded of of and from. 

Off from, is a compound of off and from. 

Over, is from the Saxon adjective, ufon, vfan, or ufa. It was compared 
ufa, ufera, ufcmcest, over or up, uper, utmost, uttumost, upmost. These are 
still used occasionally as nouns and adjectives. 

Overagainst, compound of over and against. 

Overate compound of over and at. 

Out. Took says that the origin of this word, so far as he knows, is whol- 
ly lost. He thinks it was probably derived from a noun originally meaning 
shin. It has probably been used in the Gothic and Saxon as a noun and 
adjective, more or less, as it always has been, in the English. As an ad- 
jective, its comparisons are, out, outer, utter, utmost, uttermost. 

Outof, compound of out and of. 

Outfrom, compound of out and from. 

Outfromamong, compound of out, from and anions. 

On. Bailey derives from an, Teutonic. Took names, but does not pre- 
tend to know its origin. I believe it to be derived from the Latin- noun 
ounus, aload, burthen, &c, and shall rest satisfied untill some one can give 
a better. 

Oposite, is used both as an adjective and preposition. It is from ob, Lat- 
in, against, Greek, cpi, or upo, and the Latin verb po?w, to place. It is our 
verb, oppose, corrupted into a preposition. 

Per is the same preposition in the Latin, and is derived from poros, 
Greek, a passage, or way. It has the same meaning in English, as in Lat- 
in, meaning by, or through any place, thing, or means. 

Sans is the Italian preposition sans, from the noun senza, or sanza, ab- 
sence. It means absence, or without: as u sans teeth, sans hair, sans 
eyes," &c, i. e. without teeth, without hair, without eyes. 1 Took, 267, 8. 

Since, is a corrupt abreviation and combination of different words. It 
has been differently written, at different periods of our language, sithen, 
sithence, sithens, sithenes, and sithns. It has been supposed to be, in its 



ETYMOLOGY. 87 

different ways of being used and applied, as a preposition, conjunction and 
adverb. In its present use and application, I believe it is used only as a 
preposition, and I doubt if it ever was, in reality any thing else. It is 
sometimes used with the signification of a past participle, and sometimes of 
a present participle. When used with the meaning of a past participle, it 
is derived from the Saxon verb, seathan, siathan, sethan, sithan, sithen, to 
percieve, comprehend, and means seen, comprehended, understood, or per- 
cieved: as "such a system of government, as the present, has not been at- 
tempted, since the expulsion of James the second." 

When used in nature of a present participle, it is used for the Saxon par- 
ticiple scena, seeing, from the verb seon, to see: as "If I should labor for 
any other satisfaction, but that of my own mind, it would be an effect of 
phrenzy and not of hope, since it is not truth, but opinion, that can travel 
the world, without a pasport." " Since death takes from all whatever for- 
tune, or force takes from any one." i. e. seeing that death takes, &c. 

Some erroneously use it as an adverb : as "it is a year since [the time] I 
saw you." It never is an adverb, as any one will see, when the elipsis is 
properly supplied. And I have never, as I recollect, found it, in a situa- 
tion, where it could be called a conjunction. 1 Took, 111. 

- Thru by the influence of the Norman French, has, for several hundred 
years, been written through. It appears to me that we have borne that 
badge of conquest and degradation, long enough to strip off this French 
dress, and throw it away, and restore the old pure Saxon and English spel- 
ling. From the Gothic noun danra, or daur. Saxon dora, duru, dure, 
thure, thura. Greek, thura, a door, or passage. 1 Took, 274. In the Per- 
sian and Chaldean, it is thro, and in the Teutonic thurah. And our noun, 
thoro, or thorofare is from the same. 

Thruout, compound of thru and out. 

To, in the Dutch, toe and tot, is the Gothic noun, taui, or tauhts, effect, 
act, result, consummation, which is also the past participle, tauid, or tauids 
of the verb, taugen, to do, effect, act, ox perform. 1 Took, 285. 

Toward, or Toxcards, compound of to and ward. Ward, or weard, is the 
imperative of the Saxon verb wardian, or iceardian, to look at, to view, 
examine, look again at, review. Alone icard, is only used as a noun and 
verb, in English. 

Under, Dutch onder, seems, by the sound and spelling, to have little con- 
nexion with beneath, is very nearly related to it and may very well supply 
its place ; for it is only the noun on-neder. See before, &c. It is often 
used as an adjective : as " The under worlds'" 1 Took, 330, 1. 

Underneath, a compound of under and neath, and is a duplicate of itself. 
See under, before &c, and neath. 

Up, upon, is from the Saxon adjective ufra, and was compared ufra, 
ufera, ufemist, up, upper, utmost, or upmost, upermost. Up means merely 
assention, and is undoubtedly a contraction of a participle, or imperative 
of some lost verb, in the Gothic, or Saxon : as up the hill. On being added 
signifies the completion of the act, as, upon the hill, i, e. on the top of the 
hill, or head, or top. 

Upin, is a compound of up and in } as up in town. 

Upto, compound of up and to. 

Upat, compound of up and at. 

Upwith, compound of up and with. 

Upon, compound of up and on. 

Unto, compound of un and to. 

With, is the imperative of the Gothic verb, withan^ and the Saxon verb, 



SS ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

wythan, or withan, to bind, or join together. We still use the verb withe; 
but I believe we give it no other meaning but to bind stakes together, with 
twigs, or withs, in making fence. 1 Took, 262. 

Within, compound of with and in. 

Without, compound of with and out. 

And whenever any of these prepositions are used in composition with 
verbs, they always carry with them their own distinctive meaning, and add 
it to, and incorporate that meaning with the proper meaning of the verb. 

§ 3= OF THE INSEPARABLE PREPOSITIONS. 

They are such, as are used in composition with other words, but cannot 
be used alone. They are always prefixed to the words, with which they 
are used. They have been generally supposed not to be words of them- 
selves of a clear and distinct meaning. But that is a mistake. All addi- 
tions to words, whether prefixes, or affixes, are full and distinct words, or 
the corruptions and contractions of words having a full, clear and distinct 
meaning, and these contractions and corruptions retain the meaning of the 
original words, from which they come, and always add their own meaning 
to the words to which they are prefixed. If it was not so, their use would 
be both burthensome and useless. 

They are the following: a, ab, abs, ac, ad, at, af, afore, ag, al, amphi, an % 
ante, anti, ap, apo, as, be, circum, co, col, com, con, cor, contra, counter, de^ 
demi, di, dia, dis, e, ex, ef, el, em, en, ep, epi, epis, enter, extra, ell, fore, 
gain, hemi, hyper, hypo, ig, il, im, in, inter, intro, ir, mes, mis, meta, non, ob t 
on, op, out, par, para, per, post, pre, pro, peri, preter, re, retro, se, semi, 
sub, subter, super, sur, syl, sym. syn, trans, ultra, and un. 

A, seems to have three derivations and three significations : 1. From the 
Gothic preposition, on, our in : as afloat, ahead, fyc. 2. From the Latin, 
and written a, ab, or abs, as occasion requires, or as best suits harmony of 
sound and ease of speech, and means from, or outof: as aioay, absolve, ab- 
stract. 3. Greek meaning without: as abyss, without bottom, and perhaps 
from apo, Greek. 

Ac, ad, or at. Cole, in his Latin dictionary, derives ad, from apud % and 
which means, at, by, among, or before. Took derives it from actum, the 
perfect participle of the Latin verb, ago, to do, act, or perform : as follows : 

Verb. Infin. Part. t agdum, agd, ad, £ 

A , < or or or >ac. 

A50. agere, agtum. j , L 

° ■ s ' ° ' ( actum, act, at, 3 

Or, perhaps, we may come home to our own mother tongue, the Saxon, 
for the etymology. Jinan signifies to give, add, or put together. Ananod is 
the past participle, and anad the imperative. And is the same imperative, 
dropping the a. Ad is still the same imperative, dropping the an, or nd. Ac 
is still the same, us ud, changing the d to c, which is a very small thing, in 
the mutation and corruption of language, for, in these operations, words al- 
ways lose, never acquire letters. And it is also common to change letters 
to accommodate the ease and facility of pronunciation. And, whichever 
we use, as a prefix, ac, ad, or at, in composition with other »words, the ad- 
ded, or prefixed idea is always the same of giving, adding, or putting some 
additional idea, to the principal word: as count, account; judge, adjudge; 
tend, attend. These three being, in fact, but one form, are interchanga- 
bly written to accommodate the ease of pronunciation and the harmony of 
sound, when the principal word happens to begin with c, d, t,j, or g. 

Af, ag, at, ap, on, and as, I suppose, as far as 1 can discover, to be only a^ 
different method of spelling and using ad. What leads me to this opinion 
is, the sense of each of these appears to carry to the principal word the 
same sense as ad. And being able to find no distinct etymology, for them, 



ETYMOLOGY. 89 

which seems to be so natural as this, I am disposed ^to adopt this opinion : 
as affirm, aggregate, alledge, approve, associate, annex. 

Jlfore, is probably the compound of a and fore, and, in composition has 
about the same sense as before, as aforesaid, &c. 

Amphi, Greek, both : as, amphibious, living in the water and out, as frogs 
&c. do. 

Ante, Latin, before: as, ante-date, 

And, Greek, against: as, Anti- Christ, 

Apo, Greek, from : as, apostrophe., taken from. 

Be, is the same as by. See remarks on preposition by. It is added to 
many words, and has the sense of being : as, bedaub, beguile, bemoan, be- 
speak, i. e. being daubed, being guiled, being moaned, being spoken. 

Circum, Latin, around : as, circumnavigate. From circus, Latin, a ring, 
or circle, from kirkos, Greek. 

Co, com and con, I suppose to be derived from comes, Latin, a companion, 
being spelled these various ways to accommodate the ease of pronunciation, 
and the harmony of sound, as, coordinate, commit, connect. 

Col and cor, I suppose to be derived from the Latin verb, colo, to cultivate, 
till, dress, fyc. as, collect, fyc And 1 am inclined to think that cor is only 
a different spelling of col, for I can find no etymology which looks more 
rational or correct. 

Contra, Latin, against-, as, contradict, of con and traho^ Latin, to draw 
together. 

Counter, French, opposite: as, counterbalance. And the French has this 
also from contra, Latin. 

De, Latin, of, from. Its whole meaning is to take away: as, depart, de- 
tract, defame. From dia Greek. 

Dia, di, Greek, through : as, diameter. Di, is the contraction of dia, and 
has about the same meaning as direct, divide. 

Dis, is the same, in the Latin, and means disunion, division, fyc. Cole, 
in his Latin dictionary, gives no etymology, but simply the above definition. 
I suppose it to be the contraction of the past participle, divisum, from the 
Latin verb, divido, to sever, seperate, or divide, because it contains, and 
carries with it the meaning of that verb, to the principal word, wherever 
used in composition : as, disunite, disagree, disband, 

Demi, Latin, half: as, demigod. 

E and Ex, are the same in Latin. E, is probably the contraction of ex, 
meaning from, outof, <^c. They are from the Greek ek, or ex, and are the 
same, either being usable at pleasure : as, exude, express, evade, evasive. 

Ef, I am inclined to believe, is the Latin preposition, ex, changing the x 
to f, for the ease of pronunciation : as, effect, efficatious, that is to take away 
or remove. 

El, seems to have the same force and meaning as ex, and to be of Grecian 
origin : as, ellipsis. If so, it is only a change of x to I, for the ease of 
speech and the harmony of sound. 

Em, is French, and I know of no etymology for it It seems to enlarge 
and strengthen the meaning of words to which it is applied : as, empower. 

En, is French and carries the idea of addition or enlargement, to the 
principal word : as, entangle, enlarge, fyc. (a) 

(a) And after all, it may be our preposition in, for we often use in instead 
of en, and many write either way indifferently. En, I consider to be the 
French orthography and in, the English. 



90 . ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Ep, epi, Greek, in upon, above. Ep, in the Greek, is only the contraction 
of api, for harmony and measure : as epode, epigram. 

Extra, Latin, without, beyond: as extraordinary, of ex and traho, Latin, 
to draw out. 

Eu, Greek, well, or good : as eulogy. 

For, negative, English, for bid) see for, preposition. 

Fore, English, foresee, for etc arn. Probably of f oris, Latin. 

Gain, contraction of against : as gainsay, to say against. 

Hyper, Greek, over, hyperbole. 

Hemi, Greek, half: as hemisphere. 

Hypo, Greek, under, hypocritical. 

Ig. Cole, in his Latin dictionary, says is from in : as ignoble, from ig 
and notus, i.e. in-notus, or unknown, or unnoticed. 

II, I suppose to be nothing more than in, or ig, so written for the ease of 
pronunciation: as illegal, i. e. inlegal, which is not so graceful a pronun- 
ciation. 

Im, in some words is the same as era; as impower, and is an affirmative; 
im being the English, and em the French form of spelling. In words of 
Latin origin, it is a negative ; as immortal. 

In, in some words is the same as en: as intangle, in being the English, 
and en the French orthography. In words of Latin origin, it is a negative: 
as innocent. 

Inter, Latin, between: as intermix. 

Intro, Latin, within : as introduce, of in and traho, Latin, to draw in. 

Ir, is of Latin origin, and a negative ; but I can find no etymology for it. 
I suppose it to be only a different way of spelling in, when applied to words 
beginning with r, for it has the same meaning as in : as irregular, i. e. in- 
regular. 

Mes, is the contraction of the noun, mess; as mesmate. 

Mis, is the contraction of the verb, miss : as misbehave, (a) 
(a) This is probably a contraction of the Latin participle missus, from 
the Latin verb, mitto, to send away. 

Meta, Greek, change : as meta morphosc* 

JYon, Latin, negative, not: as nonconform. 

Ob, is a Latin preposition meaning opposition, or against. I suppose it 
to be a primitive word, for I can not trace it to any thing else : as object, 
observe, &c. 

Op, is a Latin inseperable, and 1 cannot find any etymology for it. I am 
inclined to think that ob and op are only a different spelling of the same 
word, so varied to accommodate the ease and elegance of pronunciation. 

Out, in the English, I believe is always used as an inseperable preposition, 
and always means deprivation, separation, or taking away, or excelling: as 
outbid, outrun, fy-c. See in and out. 

Par, from the Latin adjective, par, equal : as Partake. 

Para, Greek, beyond: as paragraph. 

Per, Latin, by : as perform. 

Post, Latin, after : as postpone. Is probably the Latin participle positus 
from the verb pono. 

Pre, Latin, before : as preingagc. 

Pro, Latin, for, before, for ivard: as promote. 



ETYMOLOGY, 91 

Peri, Greek, about, around: as periwig. 

Preter, Latin, beyond: as preternatural. 

Re, Latin, back again : as return, is a contraction of retro. 

Retro, Latin, backward, returning : as retrospect, 

Se, Latin, apart : as seclude. 

Semi, Latin, half: as semicircle. 

Sub, Latin, under : as subdue, of sub and dueo, Latin. 

Subter, Latin, beneath : as subterfuge, of sub and fugo. 

Super, Latin, above, over : as superadd. 

Sur, French, super, suse, Latin : as surpass, suppress. 

Syl, sym, syn, Greek, sul, sum, sun, with, together : as sylogysm, sym- 
phony, syntax. 

Tra, trans, Latin, over, beyond ; as traduce, translate. 
Ultra, Latin, beyond : as ultramarine. 

Un, Latin, is probably a corruption of non, and is always a negative: as 
unworthy) or the Saxon preposition on. 

This catalogue, I believe is about all the inseparable prepositions, in our 
language. That the scholar may better understand them, and their use and 
application, I have given their etymology, as far as I have been able, and 
their definitions. 

The separable prepositions, as will be seen, by the etymology and defini- 
tions above given, are mostly from the Gothic and Saxon, from whence our 
language is chiefly derived. The inseparable prepositions are mostly from 
the Latin and Greek. These explanations of the prepositions will probably 
relieve them, in future, from the imputation, which has, heretofore, gener- 
ally been put upon them, that they were words of such insignificance that 
they had no distinct and definite meaning of their own, and were not capa- 
ble of any. 

They have generally been considered not as words, but as the fragments 
of lost words, having no definite meaning. The fact is the reverse. No 
class of words conveys an idea more clearly, plainly and fully, than the 
prepositions, whether separable, or inseperable. 

The separable prepositions always perform a three-fold office : 1. Of an 
adverb, in qualifying the verb : 2. Of a conjunction, in shewing relation 
between the object of their government, and the nominative of the verb, 
and also the manner, in which the verb associates with those nouns. 
3. Their own verbal office of governing the objective case. 

Although 1 am not disposed to change words much, from one part of 
speech to another; still I can not see what we can make of than, in the 
following passage, from Milton, but a preposition : 

" Belzebub, 
Than whom, Satan except, none higher sat." 

Another thing is worthy of notice, concerning this peculiar adjectived 
form of the verb, that it ceases to have any connexion, with any nomina- 
tive, or any relation to voice, mood, number, person, or tense, to all of 
which, the verb, in its natural state, conforms. 

Rule. — When a verb has a governing office, and no connexion with 
voice, mood, number, person, nor tense, and performing the three offices 
abovenamed, that adjectived branch of the verb is a preposition. 



92 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



CHAPTER XL 



OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

§ 1. OF THE NATURE AND USE OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Conjunctions are used to connect words and sentences, and to show the 
conditionally of events, as, " Two and three and four make nine." " I will 
go, if you will accompany me." " I would do it, if I could." 

Conjunctions are another adjectived iorm of the verb, having no connex- 
ion with voice, mood, tense, number, nor person. Their office is to connect, 
or shew relation between words, which have no natural affinity, or relation 
to each other. 

Rule. — Any word, which connects the like, or different cases of nouns, 
and the like, or different moods and tenses of verbs, having relation only 
to the imperative mode and second person, is a conjunction. 

And when conjunctions shew relation between sentences, the connecting 
operation is always between the nouns and the verbs of the several sen- 
tences. 

All our conjunctions are probably the imperative moods ot Gothic and 
Saxon verbs, which have become obsolete, or lost to the English language. 
That they may be the better understood, I will give a schedule of them, 
and their etymology and meaning. 



Verb. 


Imperative 


. Conjunction. Explanation. 


Gifan. 


Gif. 


If. 




To give. 


Anan. 


An. 


An. 




To grant. 


Ananod. 


Anad. 


And. 




To add, put together, unite. 


JBotan. 


B.ot. 


But. 




To compensate, give odds, (a) 


Beon-utar 


t. Be-utan. 


But. 




Be out, off, or away. 


Ecan. 


Eak. 


Eke. 




To add. 


Alesan. 


Ales. 


Else. 




To dismiss. 


Stillan. 


Still. 


Still. 




To put, or place. 


Thofian. 
Thofigan. 


C Thof. 
1 Thafig. 


Though 
Tho. 


i 


To allow, grant. 


Onlesan. 


Onles. 


Unless. 




To dismiss, send away. 1 Took, 111, 


Getan. 


Get. 


Yet. 




To get, or obtain.. 



Or, Bailey, in his dictionar}* 1 derives from odar, Teutonic ; but does not 
give any etymology, nor definition, nor whether odar is a verb or not; but 
1 suppose it must be a verb, or or, the corruption of some old lost verb. 
And the verb, whatever it is, probably signifies a choice between two things, 
because or always has that meaning, (b) 

Lesan. Les. Lest, else. To dismiss, or send away. 

Since and without are put down, by Took, among the conjunctions ; but, 
so far as I can discover, they are always prepositions, and I have, therefore, 
classed them with the prepositions. 

It is not of so much consequence to know the names of words, as it is to 
understand their meaning, use and relation to the otber words associated 
with them in discourse. And, when we attain this end, very little trouble 
will ever be had in the use and application of words. The true definitions" 

(a) From this same word we have our noun bot, but, or boot, the odds 
between things, when people swap one thing for another. 

(b) Or is the contraction of other. Balch's Lect. 248. So says Mr. 
Balch. But I am inclined to the above etymology. Nor is the contraction 
not and or, whatever may be the etymology of or. 



ETYMOLOGY. 93 

of prepositions and conjunctions, has already been given, and if attended 
to, will always settle matters rightly. And conjunctions are always active 
or neuter, according to the nature of their originals, and the words which, 
they govern are always understood. This shows again, how important it 
is, in all cases, to supply theelipsis, for, without it no language can be well 
understood. 

Considered as verbs, this characteristic difference seems to be between 
prepositions and conjunctions : prepositions always take the objective case 
after them, whether derived from verbs or nouns, or from active or neuter 
verps, or are compounded of nouns and verbs. Conjunctions seem to con- 
form to the nature of the verbs, from which they are derived, and accord- 
ingly take the objective, or nominative, or no case, after them, as the case 
may be. 

Conjunctions are divided into two kinds: conjunctive and disconjunctive. 

§ 2. OF CONJUNCTIVES. 

And, if, because, and therefore, are generally esteemed conjunctives. 

Conjunctives connect words and sentences, and continue the sense: as, 
Two and three and four make nine. These are divided into copulative and 
connective. 1. Copulatives join words and sentences, however incongruous, 
in signification: as, u Alexander was a conqueror, and the loadstone is 
useful." 2. Connectives join words and sentences, only having a natural 
affinity: as, "Alexander was a conqueror, because he was valiant." 

These are again divided into positive and suppositive. 1. Positives are 
either casual, or collective. Casuals subjoin cause to effect: as, " He is 
unhappy because he is wicked." Collectives subjoin effect to cause : as, 
"He is wicked, therefore he is unhappy." This shews that adverbs, as 
well as other parts of speech, shew connexion. 

2. Suppositives are either doubtful or affirmative. The doubtful denote 
connexion, but uncertainty of act, or condition : as, " He will be happy, if 
he is good." Affirmatives imply connexion and certainty of condition: as, 
" He is happy because he is good." 

§ 3. OF DISJUNCTIVES. 

Disjunctives connect words and sentences, but express opposition, or dis- 
connection of sense : as, ■" He came with her, but went without her." 

The principal disjunctives, in use, are but, lest, or, nor, though, unless, 
yet, and notwithstanding. 

1. Simple conjunctions merely connect, without affirming or denying: 
as, "It was James, or John." 

2. Adversatives connect, and are conditional or absolute. Conditional 
are adequate or inadequate. Adequate: as, " He will come, unless he is 
sick." Inadequate : as, " He will come, although he is sick." 

Therefore, either and neither, have generally been classed among the con- 
junctions. ' They never are. Therefore is always an adverb, because it can 
always be resolved into a simple sentence, which is always the very test of 
an adverb : as, " She is virtuous, therefore she is happy : " i. e. for this 
cause. Either and neither, are always pronouns, which see among the ad- 
jective pronouns. 

Relative pronouns, as well as, conjunctions and prepositions, connect and 
show relations between words. But relatives only show the natural affin- 
ities between words: as, "Blessed is the man who feareth the Lord." 
Prepositions also shew a natural affinity and connection. Conjunctions 
connect, as well where no natnral affinity is, as where it is. 

Being and seeing have, by some, been called conjunctions. They never 
are; but are always participles. As, " Being [the fact being] this reception 
of the Gospel was so anciently foretold." " Seeing [that, or that fact] all 
the congregation are holy." They have fallen into these errors, by not 



94 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

supplying the elipsis, and thereby, seeing that participles, in such like cases, 
are absolute with a noun. 

It has been said that some conjunctions are used, in coupling words and 
some, in coupling sentences. But this distinction is more nominal than 
real. For, when conjunctions connect sentences the connection is made 
then, by the influence which the conjunctions have upon particular word3, 
in each sentence, i. e. the nouns and verbs. 

And it should also be understood that conjunctions are not the only con- 
necting words, in discourse. A certain connecting and combining sense 
accompanies all words, expressing a relation and affinity, which runs thro' 
all the words, in sentences connecting and combining them all together. 
Tf this was not the case language could never express a continuation and 
connexion of ideas. And all the elegance, beauty and pathos of language 
consists in this subtle harmonious association of ideas and expressions. 

If and an may be used mutually, notwithstanding they are so different in 
their spelling, for if means to give, and an to grant, which are so nearly 
alike in meaning, that no perceptible inconvenience can arise from their 
mutual use, though an is not so much used, of late, as if. 1 Took, 123 

And so it is with yet and still, for getan means to get, and stellan, to put 
or place, which are very similar, in meaning. 

I have remarked that conjunctions may all be resolved into verbs, and to 
make the matter more plain, I will give a few examples: as, 

"I will pay you if [give that fact] you will receipt your bill." 

" I will pay you an [grant that fact] you will receipt your bill." 

" I will sue you unless [dismiss, or take away this fact] you pay me your 
note " 

I will accompany eke [add, or also] my brother shall go likewise. Eke, 
in modern English, is not much used. 

" Though a difference is in the manner of drowning, yet [get, or obtain 
this fact] it is but drowning." 

"Though a difference is in the manner of drowning, still [place or put 
this circumstance] it is but drowning." 

" Give me your daughter else [dismiss, or take away that fact] I will take 
her by force." 

" I will trust in him, though [allow r that fact] he should slay me." 

11 1 will go, but [be out that fact] you shall not go." 

" You prejudice men's minds against me, lest [dismiss, or take away that 
fact] they should hear reason from me." 

<* You must return the loan to-morrow else [dismiss, or take away that 
fact] I shall have the trouble of coming after it." 



CHAPTER XII. 

OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Interjections are words prefixed to, or thrown between the members of a 
sentence to express some sudden passion, emotion, or surprise of the' speak- 
er, having no natural connexion with the other words. "I trusted in him ; 
but, alas ! he has deceived me . " Oh that my head was waters." 

Interjections, in language, are used for two purposes : 1. To signify an 
address, or salutation, which one person, or more, makes to one person or 
more. For this purpose, the interjection, O, is always used, though not al- 
ways expressed. 2, To shew, or express some sudden passion, or emotion 
of the mind of the speaker, or some sudden surprise. 

Interjections, in all languages, are comprised in a very small compass. 
Ours, according to the different passions, they express, may be divided into 
the following sorts : 



ETYMOLOGY. 95 

1. In salutation, or address, O expressed, or understood, always accom- 
panies the noun, or pronoun addressed, or saluted: as, "O thou, who in the 
heaven dost dwell." 

Some times inanimate things are personified and addressed as living and 
rational beings : as, " O grave ! where is thy victory, O death ! where is 
thy sting." In all such cases, the person, or thing addressed, is always in 
the nominative. 

2. The following interjections are expressive of grief, or lamentation : 
Ah ! alas ! oh ! Ah we take directly from the Latin, and the Latin from 
the Greek ha, or hai. Alas is from helas French, hylas Dutch, abalassa 
Italian, and lassum Latin: as, " O me lassum," i. e. O me tired, or weried 
out. (a) 

(a) Lassus from laxus, from the Latin verb laxo, to loose, or loosen, 
which is from Laleo, Greek to talk, or of the Hebrew chalais. Cole's Lat- 
in dictionary. 

3. Of wonder : hi, I can find no etymology for hi except it is from our 
verb, hi, or hie, to hasten, or go quickly. 

4. Of contempt : pish, pshaw, tush, sho, poh. Pish, or pshaw is the Sax- 
on paec, or paeca, pronounced pish, or pisha (a broad J and an equivalent to 
the interjection, trumpery. 2 Took, 309. Tush is from the Teutonic, and 
me ns to cut up. So it is used as a term of contempt, or reproach, mean- 
ing a thing in a mangled, or uncomly manner } or condition. Foh and sho 
hav a e no etymology, that I can find. 

5 . Of calling: hem, ho, oho, soho, ahoy, halloo. Hem means to inclose, 
or fasten, and probably the interjection is the imperative of this verb. I 
find no etymology for ho, oho, soho, and ahoy. Halloo, Beaty derives from 
holler, French, and hohlen, Teutonic, to set on, or intice. 

6. Of command : avast, Bailey derives from haesten, Dutch, to hold, stop, 
or stay. This word is mostly used by sailors. Avast hauling. 

7. Of aversion : foh, Bailey derives from foer, Belgian, pfuy, Teutonic, 
ji, French and vab, Latin, meaning to disdain, or dispise. 

8. Of silence : hist is probably a corruption of the verb, hiss, from heriean, 
Saxon, hissen, Belgian, hischen, Teutonic, and means to imitate the hissing 
of a serpent, by way of contempt. 

9. Of Interrogation : eh. "You will do it for me," eh! Ha. 

10. Of pleasure : aha, "aha, I am warm! I do not recollect to have 
seen this used, except in the Bible. 

11. Of laughter: haha. I can find no Etymology for it. 

12. Of hatred : fie, or fi, the imperative of the Gothic and Saxon verb, 
fian, to hate. 

The above catalogue of words are probably never used, in any other class, 
than Interjections. Other words, in the heat of passion and the vehemency 
of declamation, are occasionally used, as interjections, which the scholar 
must learn to distinguish, when so used. And it must be distinctly under- 
stood, that, when words are used as occasional interjections, they are al 
ways useiin a verbal character, for they arc not capable of use, in any 
other way. 

Interjections are the imperative moods of verbs, or the corruptions of the 
imperatives of verbs, or are other words used imperativly. 

O governs the nominative, where an address is made : as " O thou ! O 
thou ! O my friend !" 

When pathos, regret, sorrow, or joy is expressed, O takes the objective 
after it : as, 

" When I turn my eyes within, 

O [me] how dark and vain and wild." 

" Jesus, all the day long, was my burthen and song, 
O [them] that all his salvation might see." 

" O [me] to grace how great, a debtor, 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Daily I'm constraint to be." 
tl O [me] the rapturous height of that holy delight." 

Jlh, oh, alas, aha, and haha, always take the objective after them. Some 
careless writers however use oh in the nominative, when an address is made, 
but it is wholly wrong. 

Hi, pish, pshaw, hist, sho, poh, hem, ho, soho, ahoy, halloo, avast, foh, eh, 
ha,fi, all take the nominative after them, that is, they are always used with 
the second person, and used in some kind of salutation. 

Took says, vol. 1, 49, "the brutish and inarticulate interjection has noth- 
ing to do with speech, and it is only the miserable refuge of the speechless." 

Balch, Lect. p. 252 says ' interjections de&erve no attention, and form 
no part of language, and may be used by beasts and birds, as well as men. 
They are indistinct utterances of emotion, which come not within the range 
of human speech." 

It is true they are the language of all beasts and birds. And no person, 
on sober reflection, will deny that beasts and birds have a language, which 
they fully and distinctly comprehend and understand. If mankind under- 
stood their language, which they use between themselves, as clearly and 
distinctly as beasts and birds do theirs, we should not have so much quar- 
relling and misunderstanding among us. 

Besides being the exclusive language of beasts and birds, it is also of 
children, when they first attempt to communicate their ideas, by sound. 
Did any person ever undertake to say that this language of children is not 
intelligible. The fact is, instead of being the last, in our vocabulary, it is 
the first, for it is the foundation of all human language. Men may boast as 
much as they please about language. Women and children are the founders 
and makers of language, and men are only the systemizers and improvers 
of it. The most distinct example of this, that we have on record, is the 
origin of the Latin. When the Romans had taken the Latin women, and 
brought them to Rome and made wives of them, on which the war ensued 
between the Romans and the Latins, we must remark the effect it had upon 
their Roman language, which was Greek. 

The women continued to speak and teach their own tongue to their chil- 
dren, the children catching only some auxiliary words of Greek from their 
fathers, formed an entirly new language, at Rome which never again yeild- 
ed to any other. 

Thus we see that the Interjection is as much a part of speech as any 
other, if not more, for it is the first that mankind use, and the only one that 
all dumb creatures use. As used by children and dumb creatures, it un- 
doubtedly comprehends both the noun and the verb, for it answers all the 
purpose, in their mode of communicating ideas, of the noun and verb, and 
their several variations and combinations. 

Rule. — That adjectived form of the verb shewing emotion, passion, joy, 
sorrow, or disgust, having no relation to any mood, but the imperative, and 
no person but the second, is an interjection. 



CHAPTER XIII. 

OF THE DERIVATION OF WORDS. 

Having treated particularly of the different sorts of words, it will be 
proper to enquire now, how words are derived from one another, which will 
greatly help the scholar to understand the origin and genius of terms. And, 

§ 1. OF THE DERIVATION OF SUESTANTIVES. 

I. Substantives are derived from Substantives. 
1. Those, derived from other nouns by adding hood, head, ship, or cy, 



ETYMOLOGY. 97 

signify character, employment, state, condition, or office : as, Manhood, 
knighthood, Godhead, lordship, presidency. 

2. Those derived, by adding ry, or ery, signify condition or habit : as, 
Slavery, foolery. 

3. Those derived, by adding icick, rick, dom, or age, signify dominion, 
jurisdiction, or condition: as, Baliwick, bishoprick, dukedom, whoredom, 
vicarage, 

4. Those derived, by adding ian, yer, er, r, or or, signify possession, em- 
ployment, or profession : as, Physician, lawyer, laborer, lover, holder, coun- 
sellor. 

5. Those derived by adding merit, age, ster, or tier, signify authority, cus- 
tom, or habit : as, Government, usage, damage, gamester, winner. 

6. Those derived, by adding lock, mock, per, and mer, signify utensils : 
as, Mattock, hammock, hamper, hammer. 

7. Those derived by adding ki?ig, ling, en, ock, rel, erel, are diminutives, 
including the noun and adjective in one word: as, Lambkin, gosling, duck- 
ling, chicken, cockerell. These signify the young of animals, in their first 
states. Those ending in ock, signify material things, as hillock, or full- 
grown males of neat cattle, whether bulls, stags, or oxen, as bullock. 

8. Commonplace nouns are derived, by changing cc, into tive: as, Sub- 
stantive. 

9. Those signifying office add iff or tain: as, Bailiff, sheriff, captain. 

10. By prefixing now. as, Nonresident, nonsense, nonage. These are 
negative terms. 

11. By prefixing a verb : as, Dotage. 

12. By prefixing a substantive or adjective: as, Woodenhead, blockhead^ 
appleseed, cornfield, gentlewoman. 

13. By adding uale: as, Graduate. 
J4 9 By adding ation: as, Salvation. 

15. By adding ny : as, Penny. 

16. By prefixing prepositions : as, Inside, outside, underlaborer, overseer, 
bystander. 

17. By adding kind we designate the different species of animals, and 
things : as, Mankind, womankind, horsekind, &c. 

18. By changing t.to m: as, poet, poem. 

19. By prefixing a pronoun or adjective : as, Almighty, anyt 1 ing, n^th. 
ing, highplace. 

20. By adding dess, ess^ or ine 3 we change the gender; as, Goddess, 
countess, heroine. 

21. By changing ke into ichy :■ as, Dutchy, 

22. By adding or : as, Senator. 

23. By prefixing a participle : as, Restingplace, hidingplace. 

24. By prefixing a noun and preposition, or noun preposition and article: 
as, Manofwar, willawisp [Will with a wisp] jackalantern [Jack with, a 
lantern.] 

25. By adding an adjective : as, Jackall ? cural. 

26. By prefixing a noun and conjunction : as, Jackanapes [Jack and 
apes, 

27. By changing se into tensil : as, Utensil. 

28. By adding nt : as, Resident. 

2: , By adding ing: as, Evening, morning. 

?<\ By prefixing a noun, or adjective: as, Topmast, foremast, nrr insail, 

31. By prefixing an adjective and noun : as, Topgallantmast. 

32. By prefixing an adjective noun and adjective : as, Fore topgallant- 
mast, 

II, Substantives are derived from adjectives. 

. !• By giving them a substantive signification, we make them substan- 
tives : as, " To shun the evil, and to choose the good." 

5 



93 ENGLISH GRAMMAR , 

2. Those formed by adding ness, signify quality or disposition. Good- 
ness, badness, sadness, youthfulness, wilfulness, laziness. 

3. By adding stir, and ing, signify youthfulness : as, Youngster, strip- 
ling. 

4. By changing a vowel to a diphthong : as, Heat. 

5. By adding t, or th, and occasionally changing a vowel, or diphthong: 
as, Height, slight, length, breadth. 

6. By changing c final to i and adding ty : as, Adversity. 

7. By changing eel, or le to it, and adding ity : as, Ability, gentility, 
plausibility, probability. 

8. By giving the plural form to adjectives, v/e make them nouns : as, 
Goods, movables. 

9. By adding dom to adjectives : as, Freedom. 

10. By joining two adjectives: as, Almighty, allpowerful. 

III. Substantives are derived from Verbs* 

1. By giving them a substantive sense, which is the case with a great 
many of our verbs. 

2. By changing or expunging a vowel and adding r, or rix : as, Execu- j 
tor, executrix. 

3. By adding r, er, or per : as, Lover, hearer, supper. 

4. By adding age, ledge : as, Salvage, knowledge. 

5. By adding ard : as, Dotard. 

6. By adding ion, ition, or nation : as, Situation, disposition, commenda- 
tion. 

7. By dropping ish and adding utiqn : as, diminution. 

8. By adding ance : as, Indurance, grievance. 

9. By adding ment, or nt : as, Acknowledgment, resident. 

10. By changing e final to it : as, Pursuit. 

11. By expunging d and addidg s&, or ticn: as, Applause, attention. 

12. By changing y to i and adding catc : as, Certificate. 

13. By adding t : as, Joint. 

14. By changing ve toft : as, Thrift, gift. 

IV Substantives are derived from Participles. 

1. By giving them a substantive signification : as, Writing, being, learn- 
ing, understanding. 

2. By using the before and of after: as, "The loving of our enemies." 

3. Associating the possessive case, or a possessive pronoun : as, " His 
being slain, the master's being gone." 

4. By adding ard to the perfect participle : as, Drunkard. 

V. Substantives are derived from Prepositions. 

1. By adding n to in we make inn. 

2. By adding t to but we make butt. 

§ 2. OF THE DERIVATION OF PRONOUNS. 

1. Simple pronouns are abstract terms. 

2. Compound pronouns are formed. 1. By adding self: as, Myself. 2. 
By adding my and self: as, I myself. 3. By adding ever : as, Whoever. 
4. By adding so : as, Whoso. 5. By adding soever : as, Whosoever. 6. 
By adding own: as, Hisown. 7. The adjective pronouns are compounded 
by associating them with one another. 

§ 3. OF THE DERIVATION OF ADJECTIVES. 

L Adjectives arc derived from Substantives. 
1. Denoting want, ability, or character, likeness, dignity, or disgrace, by 



ETYMOLOGY. . 99 

adding y, or ly: as, Scanty, healthy, mighty, noisy, manly, earthly, cow- 
ardly. 

2. Denoting likeness, similtude, character, or disposition, by adding like, 
or ish : as, Godlike, warlike, knavish, sottish, foolish. 

3. Denoting habit and character, by adding ous, eous, or ioua : as, Virtu- 
ous, righteous, vicious. 

4. Denoting the material of which a thing is made, by adding en, or cm: 
as, Wooden, woolen, earthern. 

5. Denoting abundance, elegance, or care, by adding fid: as, Joyful, 
fruitful, graceful, careful. 

6. Denoting pleasure, beauty, or difficulty, by adding some : as, Delight- 
some, handsome, troublesome, toilsome. 

7. Denoting meanness, inattention, privation, or might, by adding less : 
as, Worthless, careless, joyless/matchless. 

8. Those derived by adding able are various in their signification : as 
Warrantable, answerable, servicable. 

9. By adding ical, ial, al, or ate : as, Oratorical, oratorial, verbal, propor- 
tionate. 

10. By changing le to ial: as Participial. 

11. By changing y to ous : as, Calamitous. 

12. By adding ive : as, Objective, 

13. By changing ion to ory : as,- Approbatory. 

14. By adding-hold : as, Copyhold, household. 

15. By changing sis into tic, or deal : as, Elliptic, elliptical. 

16. By changing ety to ial: as, Social. 

II. Adjectives are derived from Adjectives. 

1. Those denoting diminution of quality, by adding ish: as, Whitish, 
redish, 

2. Those denoting pleasure and the contrary by adding some ; Blyth- 
some, gladsome, wearysome. 

3. By changing le to eel : as, Genteel. 

4. By adding t/i or changing ve to fth: as, Fifth, sixth. 

5. By prefixing prepositions : as, Upright, immortal, overhappy, disa- 
greeable. 

6. By combining two adjectives: as, Ten and two, twelve; three and ten, 
thirteen. 

7. By changing ee to ird: as, Third. 

III. Adjectives are derived frGm Verbs. 

1. By adding ative, tive, ox pttive : as, demonstrative, communicative, pre- 
sumptive. • 

2. By adding able: as, Knowable, provable. 

3. By changing e final to fy, or y : as, Comly, crazy. 
'4. By adding ous : as, Covetous. 

5. By adding ive: as, Communicative. 

6. By adding some: as, Toilsome. 

IV. Adjectives arc derived from Prepositions. 
By adding er, per, ner : as, Outer, upper, inner. 

§ 4. OF THE DERIVATION OF VERBS. 

I. Verbs are derived from Substantives. 

1. By giving them a verbal sense, which is the case with many of our 
verbs. 

2. By changing ss into ze: as, Glass, glaze; brass, braze. 



100 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. By softening the consonant and adding e final : as, Breathe. 

4. By adding en: as, Lengthen, strengthen. 

5. By changing/ to v and adding e final: as, Grieve, thieve. 

6. By changing ance to itute : as, Substitute. 

7. By prefixing a preposition: as, Acknowledge, empower, enforce. 

8. By adding age: as. Manage. 

9. By expunging I : as, Salve, save. 

10. By changing the vowel : as, Bliss, bless. 

11. By lengthening a diphthong and softening a consonant : as, House, 
mouse. 

12. By dropping tie : as, Spittle, spit, 

13. By dropping th : as, Warm. 

II. Verbs are derived from Adjectives. 

1. By giving them a verbal signification ; as, Warm, cooL 

2. By prefixing en or e : as, Enlarge, elate. 

3. By adding en : as, Shorten, lighten. 

III. Vevbs are derived, from Verbs. 

1. By prefixing prepositions : as, Overrun, impart, bespeak, emit, remem- 
ber, aggrieve. 

2. By prefixing a conjunction ; as, Anoint, i. e. and oint. 

3. By changing I to nt : as Oil, oint. 

§ 5. OF THE DERIVATION OF PARTICIPLES AND GERUNDS. 

1. Present participles and gerunds are derived from verbs, by adding ing : 
as, Loving, seeing. 

2. Perfect participles of regular verbs are derived by adding d y ed, or t: 
as, Loved, lighted, spilt. The other participles by the terminations, which 
they take. And some change not the orthography of the verb. 

§ 6. OF THE DERIVATION OF ADVERRS. 

I. Adverbs are derived from Substantives. 

1. By prefixing prepositions : as, Ahead, aside, upstairs, downstairs, in- 
doors, infact, topass. 

2. By prefixing an adverb : as, Aliitlewhile. 

3. By prefixing a pronoun : as, Sometimes. 

II. Adverbs are derived from Adjectives. 

1. By giving them an adverbial sense. 

2. By adding y, or ly: as, Gladly, fully, heartily. 

3. By changing c final to ce : as, Once. 

4. By changing o to ice : as, Twice. 

5. By changing ee to ice: as, Thrice. 

6. By writing an adverb, preposition and an adverb : as, Notatall. 

7. By prefixing an adverb and pronoun : as, Twicea-long. 

III. Adverbs are derived from Pronouns. 

1. By joining two together : as, Somewhat. 

2. By adding an adverb: as, Somehow, anyhow, everywhere. 

IV. Adverbs are derived from Participles. 
1. By adding ly : Lovingly, lovedly. 



ETYMOLOGY. # 101 

V. Adverbs are derived from Adverbs. 

1. By joining an adverb and adjective together: Oncemore, twicemore, 
nomore« 

2. By adding a preposition : as, Wherefore, thereat, wherewith, moreover. 

3. By prefixing a preposition : as, Atonce, attwice. 

4. By prefixing an adjective : as, Altogether. 

5. By adding a conjunction : as, Notyet. 

VI. Adverbs are derived from Prepositions. 

1. By giving them an adverbial sense. 

2. By prefixing a preposition and conjunction : as, Byandby. 

Adverbs are also derived by the promiscuous association of the different 
parts of speech : as, Forevermore, whenever. 

§ 7. OF THE DERIVATION OF PREPOSITIONS. 

I. Prepositions are derived from Verbs. 
Except is sometimes a preposition. 

II. Prepositions are derived from Participles : 
As, Excepting, touching, concerning. 

III. Prepositions are derived from Adjectives : 
As, Near, Next. 

IV. Prepositions are derived from Prepositions : 
As, Into, unto, without, outof, throughout. 

V. Prepositions are derived from Conjunctions : 
As, But. 

§ 8. OF THE DERIVATION OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

*• By joining an adjective and conjunction : as, Although. 

2. By joining an adjective and pronoun : as, Also. 

3. By joining an adverb, article and adjective : as, Nevertheless. 

4. By joining an adverb, preposition and participle : as, Notwithstanding 

§ 9. OF THE DERIVATION OF INTERJECTIONS. 

I. Interjections are derived from Verbs : 
As, Behold, hail, see. 

II. Interjections are derived from Adjectives • 
As, Strange, wonderous. 

III. Interjections are derived from Interjections. 

1. By prefixing an adjective : as, Allhail. 

2. By prefixing a pronoun ■ as, Soho. 

REMARKS. 

These are the principal ways, in which words are derived from one anoth- 
er in our language. To notice every one would be going to a greater nicety 
than is necessary. 



102 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

It would be neither useful nor proper, here, to go into an inquiry of the 
derivation of words from the dead, nor living languages. Those who make 
language their study, have abundant opportunity to amuse themselves on 
this subject. And herein the writings of Took and Harris, together with 
our best English dictionaries, will furnish the best information. 



CHAPTER XIY. 

OF THE DERIVATION OF THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 

Having enquired particularly into the elements of words, their nature, 
the several classes into which they seperate, and the manner in which they 
are derived from one another, we will now take leave of this part of Gram- 
mar, by inquiring, a little into the origin of the English language. * 

It will be proper to begin our inquiries by observing, that the ancient root 
of our language is Celtic. 

The first account we get of our ancestors, the Britons, who were the ab- 
origines of the island of Great Britain, is from Julius Caius Caesar, who 
invaded the island, in the year fifty-five before Christ He soon finished 
his conquest of the southern part of the island. The inhabitants, who then 
spoke a dialect of the old Celtic, retired to the north, and were afterwards 
called Scots and Picts, who still, in the highlands, as is said, retain some- 
thing of their ancient dialect. 

The fall of the Roman Empire left them without protection. In the year 
459 of our era, the Saxons were invited, by the Britons, to defend them 
against their northern neighbors, the Scots and Picts After they had per- 
formed this kind office, for the Britons, they took the country to themselves, 
and co mpeiled the inhabitants to submit to them and their laws. They held 
the country till about the year 1010. Hence we derive the Saxon part.of 
our language. The Saxon was a dialect of the Teutonic. 

At this period, Swen, King of Denmark, invaded and conquered the 
country, and held it about fifty-three years. 

In the year 1066, William, Duke of Normandy, invaded and conquered 
the Southern part of the Island, for the fourth and last conquest. Notwith- 
standing the great attempts of the crown and court to make the Norman 
French the language of the country, such was the aversion of the people 
to their new masters, that they preserved their ancient language, the Nor- 
man only becoming its tributary, though all parliamentary and judicial 
proceedings were kept, for a long time, in that, language. Hence the French 
part of our language. 

The Norman, as a court language, was superceded by the Latin, which 
became the court and literary language, not of England only, but of all 
Europe. From this circumstance and the conquest and occupation of it by 
the Romans, as above related, for above 500 years, we derive the Latin part 
of our language. 

These are the sources from whence we derive the English language, 
which, with such accessions, as the learned have gradually made to it, from 
the classical languages, with the occassional adoption of words from the liv- 
ing languages of Europe and other parts of the world, by travellers and 
merchants, form the English language, in its present state of refinment. 



PAETIII 

SYNTAX. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF THE NATURE AND USE OF SYNTAX. 

Syntax teaches the right disposition and arrangment of words 
in a sentence. 

A sentence is such an assemblage and arrangment of words, as 
conveys a clear and distinct idea. Sentences are of two kinds : 
simple and COMPLEX. 

I. A simple sentence has but one subject and one finite verb : 
(b) as, " Life is short." 

(b) Finite verbs arc made in any of the first three moods, and infinite, in 
the infinitive. 

A simple sentence conveys but one principal idea, though it alwavs has 
one, or more associated ideas, for it is impossible to express an idea, without 
an associate • as, when I say, / am, which is as simple as language can 
make, I imply substance, by /, when I express actual existence, by am. 

Simple sentences are of three sorts : explicative, interrogative, 
and imperative. 

1. Explicative sentences are positive, or negative: as, " I am. 
She is ungrateful." 

2. Interrogative sentences ask questions, and have the verb 
preceding the nominative case, except when an auxiliary is used, 
when the auxiliary prcedes and the principal verb succeds the 
nominative case : as, " Was it she ? " " Did Washington conquer 
the Britons?" 

3. Imperative sentences command a second person to be, to do, 
or to suffer. The verb and the nominative case are situated to 
each other, as in interrogative sentences : as, "Go thou." "Do 
thou go." " Be thou gone." " Be thou going." 

The principal parts of a simple sentence are the agent, the attribute, and 
the object. The agent is the person speaking, spoken to, or spoken of. 
The attribute is what is affirmed, or denied. The object is what is affected 



104 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

by the action : as, t; I govern my passions." " Govern thou thy p ssions." 

1, is the agent • governs, the attribute, or thing attributed to the agent; and 
passions, th< bject. 

II. A coj: j ound sentence contains two or more simple ones, coupled to- 
gether by t o or more connecting words: as, " Life is short, art is long, 
an d money 1 1 acherous . ' ' 

The pans of a compound sentence are called its members. See preced- 
ing example. 

The partb of the members of compound sentences are called clauses : as, 
"The ox ki weth his owner, and the ass his masters crib : but Israel know- 
eth not, my t ople consider not." 

Sentence simple or compound, in themselves, become members of sen- 
tences, by eing coupled together, or placed in apposition. 

Phrase h two definitions , 1, It is either a simple sentence, or a clause. 

2, It is the nner or style of writing, 

Syntax is divided into agreement and government. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF THE CONCORD, OR AGREEMENT OF WORDS. 

A mutual agreement exists between the nominative case and the verb; 
the noun, pronoun, adjective, article, and participle. 

§ 1. OF THE NOUN. 

Rule 1. Two, or more nouns, in conjunction, meaning the same 
person, or thing, agree in case. As, "Paul the Apostle. " "Sol- 
omon, son of David, king of Israel. '' See ob. 3, rule 7. 

1. To express emphasis mora fullv, a personal pronoun is often put in 
app9sition to one or more nouns. As, " Augustus, the Roman emperor, he, 
who succeded Julius, is differently described." u Jesus went down to 
Capernaum, he and his disciples." 

2. Pronouns are sometimes in Opposition to one another : as, " Thou false 
promise r, thou shalt never obtain thy purpose." 

3. When two, or more nominatives are rn apposition, tlrey agree in case, 
and the verb agrees with the first : as, "The founders of Rome, a gang of 
theives and robbers, were a •■collection from many nations." 

4. Adjectives used emphatically, with the article the, are put in apposition 
with proper names : as, " Louis the bold." "Washington the good." 

5. In emphatical sentences, personal pronouns and a noun may agree in 
case : as, " When he, the spirit of truth, shall come, he will guide us into 
all truth." 

6. The subject matter of the clause or member of a compound sentence 
is some times put in apposition to it expressed, or understood • as, " That 
virtue will be rewarded and vice punished, in the next state of existence, 
[it, or that fact] is a doctrine clearly taught in the Bible." 

7. Which, used both as a relative and a demonstrative pronoun, and the 
noun, with which it is used, are placed in apposition to the subject matter 
of the preceding sentence, when that subject matter is laid down as a fun- 
damental principle: as, " Weak men, though princes, deserve not praise. 
Which rule, had it been observed, a neighboring prince would have wanted 
a great deal of that incense, which was offered him." The non-desert of 
praise, is the subject matter, and is in apposition to which rule, and rule ar^ 
it, are also in apposition. 



SYNTAX. 105 

8. Common nouns are often put in apposition : as, " Religion, the sup- 
port of adversity, adorns its possessors." 

9. The nominative case absolute may be put in apposition to a substan- 
tive pronoun: as " personal pronouns being used to supply the place of 
nouns, [they] should not be used in the same part of the sentence. 

10. A noun, in the singular, standing as a general term, may be in appo- 
sition with a plural : as u God made man upright, [or rather right] but they 
have sought out many inventions." 

11. When a member of a sentence refers to two different clauses, it is 
equally applicable to both : as " He has not been and cannot be censured 
for such conduct." 

§ 2. OF PRONOUNS. 

Rule 2. Personal pronouns agree in number, gender and per- 
son, with their nouns: as "Paul was an Apostle, he preached the 
Gospel to the heathen. 

1. It frequently happens that pronouns are substitutes for nouns of diff- 
erent gender. In such cases the agreeing words are all of the worthiest 
genders: as "the king and queen fled, and they were pursued and taken." 
See adjectives. 

2. The neuter pronoun of the third person singular is indiscriminately 
applied to either gender, in explicative sentences, i. e. where the third per- 
sonal verbs are used : 1 , The subject of discourse, or inquiry : as, "it rains, 
it snows, it is fair weather." "Who was it, that I saw? how is it with 
thee?" 2, The cause, or effect : as "I heard her say it was he." "The 
truth is, \t was I, who did it," 3. Applied to collective nouns : as " it is a 
few great men, who decide the whole." (a) 

(a) This is not elegant, though it is good English, 

3. Sometimes the subject matter of the member of a sentence, is the an- 
tecedent. See ob. 6, Rule 1. 

4. This rule is often violated, through a want of a proper attention to the 
nature and import of collective and distributive terms : as, " Each of the 
sexes should keep within its proper bounds, and content themselves [itself,] 
with the advantages of their [its] peculiar district." " Can any one, on 
their [his] entrance into the world, be fully secure that they [he] will not 
be decieved." " One should not think too favorably of ourselves [him- 
self."] 

5. Personal pronouns being used only to supply the place of nouns, should 
not be used in the same part of the sentence: as, "The king [he] is just." 
" I saw [her] the queen." 

6. To find the antecedent to a personal pronoun, ask the question, who ? 
which ? or what ? and the word answering the question is the antecedent : 
as, " And Alexander marched his army into the plain, and he encamped by 
the brook." Who encamped ? Alexander. 

7. Pronouns of the neuter gender, often refer to the general idea, or sub- 
ject matter, and not to any particular word : as, " In the familiar style, it 
has become proper to apply the second person plural of the pronoun and 
the singular verb." 

Rule 3. Relative pronouns agree with their antecedents, in gen- 
der, number and person :/ as, " This is the friend > whom I love." 
See oh. 1, Rule 4. 

1. The antecedent is often elegantly understood, by beghaing the sen- 
tence with a relative, when in the nominative : as, " Who is fatal to others- 
is fatal to himself." See ob. 13, Rule 5. Ob. ] , R. 57. 

2. The antecedent is sometimes expressed, and sometimes understood, 
and so is the relative. 

*5 



106 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

3. When the relative is in the objective, it always preceds the verb, 
whether governed by the verb, or a preposition : as, " Whom ye ignorantly \ 
worship." " This is the man, for whom X labored." 

4. By an elegant transposition, the antecedent is sometimes placed after 
the relative, and that antecedent may be a noun, or a personal pronoun ; as, 
" Whoso seeth his brother in need, and shuteth up his bowels of compas- 
sion from him, how dwelleth the love of God in him." 

5. When the relative refers to two or more antecedents of different per- 
sons, it must follow the person of the speaker : as, u Thou, he and I, who 
escaped." If the second and third persons only are used, the relative should 
be of the third : as, " Thou and he who escaped." 

6. When a person speaks of himself, all the concording terms, and the 
verb haye been taken to be indiscriminately of the first, or third person. 
This is untrue. The cause of this error is the want of a proper distinction 
between sentences, wherein a person speaks entirely of himself, and those 
wherein he speaks of himself, with reference to some other person or thing. 
For, when a person speaks of himself only, all the terms whether antece- 
dent, substitutes or relatives, are of the first person : as, I John saw the 
heavens open." U T who walk majestically, the queen of heaven, am known, 
by m y gait." "I who speak in righteousness, am mighty to save." See 
ob. 3. R. But, when a person speaks cf himself, with reference to some 
tiling else, or makes himself the object, care, solicitude, or protector of 
another, the antecedent and relative a,re of the third person : as, a I am he, 
whom thou seekest." "I am the friend, who protects you." And herein 
the supposed change of person should be noticed. For, the speaker, after 
naming* himself, supposes himself to be the object, <fcc. of the person, to 
whom he speaks, and this at once, makes himself the third person, as, re- 
spects the other. But, when the speaker only contrasts himself with the 
second or third person, the verb always remains of the first person : as, " If 
I was he, I would do otherwise." " If I was you, I would go." And it 
must be remembered that it is an axiom of the language, that the pronouns 
never change persons, tho' the nouns do. For they are the only criterion, 
we have, by which to know the persons of nouns. In vulgar phrase, J is 
■sometimes associated with a verb, in the third person : as, " Says J, says you, 
&-c. If this error appeared only in common parlance, it would not need so 
particular a notice, neither would it be so reprehensible. But I find that 
several late authors, in other respects entitled to merit, have adopted these 
vulgarities, as common cant phrases and apparently, with a view of being 
witty. But an author, who has no other way of showing his wit, than by 
such vulvar absurdities, had much better keep it to himself. Two books, 
which have appeared lately, viz : "I says, says I." and " Thinks I to my- 
self," have these absurdities for their title names, and common cant, through 
the whole works. And in every instance, through these two books, where 
they are used, it is evidently the author's design to be witty. All such ex- 
pressions contain two, downright errors. 1. Of associating a verb, in the 
third person, with a pronoun in the first. 2. By using the verb in the pres- 
ent tense, when the act expressed is in the imperfect. A writer, who will 
thus deliberately mangle his ideas and language, would do well to learn the 
idiom of his own language, if he knows it not, and, if he knows it, to prac- 
tice it, Had these authors been as careful, in the omission of improper 
terms as in omitting to put their names to their books, they would have 
added much to their reputation. The English language has suffered im- 
mense scandal, in this way, by the mimicry of the bad English of foreigners. 
And even Peter Pindar, who otherwise, is one of the finest, ablest, and best 
writers, that has adorned the English language, has frequently disgraced 
himself and his subject, merely for the drollery and fun of mimicring for- 
eigners. The fine writers of other languages do not disgrace themselves 
and their language, in this way* 



SYNTAX. 107 

7. The relative is often elegantly understood, and the helping verb omit- 
ted : as, " He is a son beloved of his father." 

8. The relative, who, should be applied to persons only, and such collec- 
tive nouns, as mean persons only: as, " Washington and Adams, who were 
Presidents/' "The Congress who passed the law." Some prefer the use 
of which and that, when applied to collective nouns. And when other 
things, besides persons, are included under the general term, the whole be- 
ing spoken of, under the idea of instrumentality, or when terms. are used 
figuratively, by personification, they are proper, and then only : as, "The 
army which conquered the Gauls." " The two houses that quarrelled about 
their privileges." No farther back than the time of James I. which, was 
indiscriminately applied to persons and things, as we see in its common use, 
in the translation of the Bible of that time. But of late, it is not so used. 

9. Which, as an interogative, should not be used, when we wish to dis- 
tinguish one of two persons, from the other: as, "Which of you did it." 
It should be who or whether. 

10. That, is used, in all the genders, but should not be used indiscrim- 
inately for who and which. It is generally considered to be the proper term, 
when demonstration, and great emphasis is meant. For, when properly 
used, it is much more emphatical, than who and which : as, " Charles xii, of 
Sweeden was the greatest madman, that the world ever saw." u Cataline's 
followers were the profligatest, thai could be found in the city." " O wretch- 
ed man that I am." As a personal relative, it is not much used of late. 

11. When two relatives, come together, that should be used, as the recip- 
rocal term, for it is inelegant to double the use of any term, when it can be 
avoided : as, " Who, that has any sense of religion, would have acted thus ? " 
This only happens in interogative sentences. 

12. So, when whieh is a precedent interogative, thai should be the recip- 
rocal : as, " Which is the knife that you bought? " 

13. When the masculine rind neuter, or feminine and neuter, are used 
together, that should always be the relative, because no other relative is the 
same, in all the genders: as, "The man and the money, that he found." 
" The woman and the estate, that became hers." 

14. The neuter gender is always applied to infants, where the gender is 
not designated, by any other word expressive of gender: as, boy, girl, son, 
daughter : as, " The child, which died." Which child, that child, what child ? 
It died. 

15. The parts, or members of compound pronouns, should not be separ- 
ated, unless for poetic measure: as, "I myself, did it." "On whichsoever 
side he turned." And the reason is plain, for that disposition of words in, 
a sentence, least liable to mistake and uncertainty, is always best. 

16. The same antecedent has often several relatives : as, " Jehovah, who 
made the world, by whose bounty we live, and by whom we are preserved, 
is eternal." See ob. 6, Rule 2. 

17. It should never intervene the relative and the verb: as, "And how 
could he do this so effectually, as by performing works, which [it] exceded 
ail the strength and ability of man." 

18. That, often refers to the subject matter and not to any particular word, 
as an antecedent. In all such cases, it should only be seperated by a com- 
ma. And, when the relative is preceded, by a third personal verb, it always 
refers to the subject matter and not to any particular antecedent : as, "In 
the action, by the payee, the note produced had his name, on its back, and 
it was insisted that that was an endorsement." See ob. 22, R. 7. 

19. Sometimes the relative as, has two antecedents: as, " And, in the 
four and twentieth day of the first month, as [i. e. at which time] 1 was by 
the side of the great river." Dan. x, 4. 

20. Many grammarians hold relatives refer to and agree with a sentence, 
clause, or member. This is entirly wrong, and is the same, as a member, 
clause, or sentence being the agent or object of a verb, which never is. In 



108 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

either of these cases, the subject matter is drawn out in a neuter pronoun, 
or adjective, and then the concordance, or government applies according to 
the nature of the use. But to say that a relative agreees with nouns, pro- 
nouns, articles, adjectives, adverbs, verbs, participles, gerunds, prepositions, 
and interjections, is perfectly absurd. And this is one of the great uses, of 
neuter terms, to consolidate and draw out the subject matter of discourse, 
in the argument. It is also one of the greatest ornaments and refinments 
of language. Without it, argument would be of no use. For, if the speak- 
er should not be able, in the end, by his argument and illustrations, to bring 
his subject to a point, and reduce all his matter to a unit, he could never 
convince his hearers of any fact whatever. And this is the reason that some 
are so much more successful, in argument than others : they bring every 
thing, be the materials ever so many, all to one point, and make that point 
plain and clear and easy to be understood. 

§ 8. OF ARTICLES. 

Rule 4. The indefinite article agrees with nouns in the singu- 
lar only, or with nouns of multitude singular: as, " A man, an 
army, an assembly." R. 3. 

Rule 5. The definite article agrees with nouns in both numbers ; 
as, " The man, the men, the assembly." 

1. The definite article, the, carries an idea of presence, and generally 
resembles the pronoun this : as, " The man did it." i, e. this man. When 
it carries an idea of absence, it resembles that : as, " That man did it." 

2. The indefinite article, in some measure, has the same effect; the idea 
of presence being left to be gathered from the sense : as, U A man did it." 
It being uncertain whether this, or that. 

3. The indefinite article is so far definite, that it means one single thing 
only, or one whole. 

4. When we make a noun a general term, the article should be omitted: 
u Man was made for society." " Man, that is born of woman/' " And the 
Lord made man of the dust of the ground." All mankind, 

5. In administering oaths the definite article should be used : as, To wit- 
nesses, " to tell the truth, the whole truth, and nothing but the truth." To 
officers, a to support the constitution and the laws of, &c," To jurors, " to 
return a true verdict, according to the law and the testimony." 

A word, which is not used in a definite sense, should not be made defi- 
nite, by the use of the article : as, U I persecuted this way unto [the] death.' ' 
Because no particular form of death is meant. Se R. 54, ob. 3. 

7. Some times the definite article is improperly omitted, when the term 
is made definite : as, "When he the spirit of truth is [shall] come, he will 
guide us unto all [the] truth." The Gospel truth being meant, in distinct 
tion from all other truth. 

8. One article is sometimes improperly used for another: as, "Who 
breaks a butterfly upon a wheel," [the wheel, it should be ] 

9. A nice distinction of sense is sometimes made, by the use, or omission 
of the article : as, "He behaved with a little reverence." This is positive, 
meaning that the boy had some manners. "He behaved with little rever- 
ence." This is negative, meaning that the boy had so little manners, as, 
in fact, to be ill manners. So, if I say i< -feio men were with him," I speak 
not only diminutively of the number; but reproachfully of the man, as 
wanting adherents. But to say that u afew men were with him," is speak- 
ing respectfully of the man and his company, 

10. The, is often used emphatically to distinguish a man by an epithet: 
as, "In the history of Henry JV, we are surprised at not finding him the 
great man." 



SYNTAX. 109 

11. The, is often used emphatically so as to have the effect of a possessive 
pronoun : as, "He looks like her, in the face," i. e. in his face. 

12. When terms are coupled, which are not emphatical, the article should 
only be used with the first: as, "A man and boy were together." " The 
day and night were pleasant." 

13. When the terms are emphatical, the article should be used with both : 
as, U A man and a woman were seen together." 

14. The, is sometimes used, with adjectives of the comparative and su- 
perlative degrees, to render them emphatical : as, u The more [times] 1 read 
the book, the better [book] I like it." " I like this book the best [book] of 
any. 

15. The is some times used to render adjectives and adverbs emphatical: 
as " With such a specious title, as that of blood, which, with the multitude, 
is always the claim, the strongest and the most easily comprehended." 

16. In answering questions, when the sense is very emphatical, this and 
the are sometimes associated : as, " This is the man thy face shall see." 

17. Tlie is used in vehement accusation : as, " Thou art the man." 

18. An, or a, is always definite, in meaning one person, or thing, and no 
more : as, " A man did it," i. e. some one ; but who is left wholly indefinite 
and uncertain. " An ox may be bought for forty dollars." 

§4. OF ADJECTIVES AND ADJECTIVE TERMS. 

Rule 6. Adjectives, pronouns and participles agree with their 
nouns, in number, case, gender and person: as, " He is a good 
man." " This book." " She is a loving mother." "My be- 
loved son." 

1. When relatives become interrogatives, or demonstratives, they con- 
form to this rule : as, " Which pen shall I take." " What man is that." 

2. Adjectives are frequently used without their nouns, in nature of nouns: 
as, "I was eyes to the blind and feet was I to the lame.' 1 ' "The blind see 
not." " The deaf hear not. 

3. Personal pronouns, like nouns, have adjectives, <&c, to agree with 
them: as, " He is good." " She is virtuous, 

4. Some nouns originally plural, by long use and custom, have become 
singular, and require singular concording terms : as, " By this means, he 
obtained his pardon." And some are either singular, or plural, as the idea 
happens to be collective, or distributive : as, "The wages of sin is death." 
"His wages are due." 

5. Two or more adjectives, &c, often agree with the same substantive: 
as, "A learned, icise.just, gracious, good, old man " 

6. The distributive pronouns are used in the singular number only. They 
are, however, like the indefinite article, associated with collective nouns 
and nouns of multitude singular ; as, " Every army is," &c. " Each nation 
loves to domineer." " Neither house can do-business alone." 

7. Adjectives, which are made adverbs, by adding ly, should not be used 
adverbially, without that termination : as, "The bell sounds clear [clearly."] 

8. But in the comparative and superlative degrees, they are properly 
used as adverbs, without adding ly : as, "He acted bolder, than was expect- 
ed." " He behaved the noblest." But, if the comparison is made, by more 
and most, then ly should be added : as, " He acted more boldly" &c. " He 
behaved the most nobly." 

9. Double comparatives and superlatives should not be used : as, " The 
bestest. More worse.' 1 

10. Some adjectives are used only in the superlative : as, Chief, perfect, 
right, universal, all, fyc. The various significations of all such adjectives 
are measured, by the nouns, with which they are used. 



110 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

11. When two things only are compared, the comparative should always 
be used: as, " James is taller, than John." "This is the letter way," 

12. So, when one is compared with two, or more, of the comparative de- 
gree, the comparative should be used : as, " Saul was, from his shoulders 
upwards, taller, than the rest of the people." 

13. But, when one thing is compared with all others, the superlative 
should be used ; because the other two degrees are necessarily supposed to, 
be included : as, " Covetousness, of all vices enters deepest into the soul." 

14. When one thing is compared with two, differing in quality, the su- 
perlative should be used : as, " This knife is the best of the three." 

15. An adjective, pronoun, participle, or adverb, to which we wish^to at- 
tach more notice, than to the noun,, should be placed after the noun, or at 
the end of the clause, member, or sentence : as, u Goodness infinite." 
" Wisdom unspeakable." " Vanity renders its possesor despicable." "An 
army fifty thousand strong." This form has another excellence, that of 
ommitting the insignificant word it: as, "It was a delightful intervieio." 
u The interview was delightful" R. 24, ob. 5. 

16. In interrogative and exclamatory sentences, the adjective, &c. should 
preceed the noun: as, "How despicable is vanity!" "What good man 
would have acted thus?" But in poetry all rules must yield to harmony 
and measure. 

17. When the adjective and noun are both emphatical, the adjective should 
be placed in the begining of the clause, or sentence : as, " Great is the Lord, 
and great is his might." " Just and true are thy ways, thou king of saints." 

18. After naming a number of different sectaries, others remaining un- 
named, all is used to include the named and the unnamed : as, " Royalists, 
courtiers, churchmen, republicans, all parties, concurred." 

19. Adverbs, which qualify adjectives, should not seperate them from their 
nouns : as, "A number large enough." 

20. When adjectives become nouns, they have like nouns, other concor- 
dant words : as, " The chief good." 

.21. To find the noun, with which adjectives, &c. agree, see ob. 6, R. 2. 

22. Which sometimes refers to the subject matter of a preceding clause, 
or member, but not to any particular word: as, "I wish you to bring your 
bill to my house, tomorrow, for settlement, which will save me some trouble " 
R. 3, ob. 18. 

23. Perfect participles agree with nouns: as, "The jury will ascertain 
the yearly damages done to the premises." 11 M. R. 367. See ob. 18. R. 3. 

24- The infinitive used as a noun in the nominative may have an. adject- 
ive in the neuter singular agreeing with it: as, " To play is pleasant." "To 
will is present with me." 

25. Adjectives, besides their agreement with substantives, have always 
an adverbial office, in qualifying verbs : as, " When love is once placed, 
it is hard eradicating it." This is good English; but it would be elegant to 
let the infinitive follow : as " When love is once placed, it is hard to eradi- 
cate it." 

26. When it refers to the subject matter, and is the nominative to a third 
personal verb, it may have an adjective agreeing with it : as, " It is good 
for us to be here." " Behold how good and how pleasant it is for brethren 
to dwell together, in unity." 



§5. 



OF VERBS. 



Rule 7. The verb agrees with its nominative, in number and 
person : as, " I love, thou lovest, he loves, we love, you love, they 
love." 

1. To find the nominative case, see ob. 6, Rule 3. 

2. We have two styles in English, the solemn and the familiar. In the 



SYNTAX. Ill 

solemn, the singular number of the second person of the pronoun, and the 
verb are always used. All addresses to the Deity, should be in the solemn 
style: as, "Thou, God see'st me." So also to sovereign dignities. The 
solemn style, in the third person singular, is distinguished by ending the 
verb in th : as, " The Lord loveth them, who are his." In the familiar style, 
by long practice, it has become proper to apply the second person plural of* 
the pronoun and verb, to the singular : as, " Will you ride with me." " I can 
oblige you." Some writers improperly use the singular and plural together : 
as, "I am now just as well, as when you were [was] here." "Knowing 
that you were [was] my old master's friend." The familiar style, in the 
third person singular, ends the verb in s, or es. 

3. The clause or member of a compound sentence is said to be the nomi- 
native to a verb, in the third person singular. See ob. ], 6, Rule 1. This 
is not true, for the subject matter, is put in apposition to it, expressed or 
understood, and it is the nominative to a verb. Besides the verb is separ- 
able and should be seperated from the clause, or member by a comma; 
whereas the verb is never separable from its nominative, except in trans- 
position, which is quite another thing. Take the example, in ob. 6. 

Rule 1. What is clearly taught? It, i. e. the doctrine, doctrine being the 
subject matter, the result, or what is affirmed, i. e. it, the nominative under- 
stood before the verb, and doctrine, its appositive and nominative after the 
verb, it and doctrine meaning the same thing. That is also the presupposi- 
tive of it and doctrine, and also in apposition to it. That this position is 
correct, is evident from supplying the noun, which it represents, and put- 
ting the sentence, in its natural order. " Virtue will be rewarded and vice 
punished in the next state of existence." It, that fact, that doctrine is 
clearly taught in the Bible. Such sentences are very much in nature of a 
noun of multitude singular. And, in any case, we may, with as much 
propriety, say that the antecedent of a pronoun is the nominative to the 
same verb, as that the pronoun is : " Paul, the apostle, preached the gospel, 
when he was at Rome." And, in all such cases, it should be noticed that is 
is a third personal verb, and that a third personal verb has no nominative, 
in any case, but it. See third personal verbs. 

4. We will notice instances of the violation of this rule: as, "What 
signifies [signify] good opinions." "If thou would [wouldest] be easy 
and happy, in thy family, observe disipline. " " Gold, whence came 
[earnest] thou." "When will [wilt] thou come again." "Wheresoever 
thou cast [castest] thy view." " Great pains has [have] been taken." 

5. Several verbs often agree with the same nominative: as, "The little 
ants, for one poor grain, labor and toil, and strive." In such cases, the first 
verb is said to agree and the others to be coupled to it. 

6. Every verb has a nominative expressed or understood. The nomina- 
tive is frequently understood, especially in imperative phrases. 

Webster, rule 5, page 141, says, in some cases, the imperative verb is 
used without a definite nominative : as, "1 will not take any thing, that is 
thine, save only that, which the 3^oung men have eaten." Gen. 14, 24. It 
is very strange, that a man of Mr. Webster's knowledge of language should 
have laid down such a rule, of which no language is capable. The great 
mistake, here, is save is not an imperative, nor good English. It should 
have been the present participle saving. 

7. A noun should never be used, in the nominative, without a verb, un- 
less absolute : as, "Man, though he has a great variety of thoughts, from 
which others might derive profit and delight, yet they are all within his 
own breast." It should be, yet has them, &c. See R. 57. 

8. A noun in the neutar gender, and the infinitive are sometimes each 
separately the nominative to the same verb, in the singular : as, "A desire 
to excell others, in learning and virtue, is commendable." This sentence is 
quoted by Murrey, to illustrate the rule; "The infinitive mood, or number 
of a sentence may do the office of a nominative to the verb." This solution 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

militates not against my construction of such sentences ; because the verb 
here separately agrees with the noun and infinitive. And that this con- 
struction is correct, is certain from this one fact : in asking the question and 
giving the answer, we can separate the two terms, and give each separate- 
ly, by itself, in making the answer to determine the nominative. Was not 
this the case, the nominative would be double and plural, and the verb plu- 
ral, and the terms would also be inseparable, in the answer. 

9. When the nominatives, of different persons, are disjunctively con- 
nected, the verb, in the singular, agrees with the person next to it : as, 
"Thou, or he is the author." " He, or 1 am to blame" The comparative 
with other requires than, and such requires as, after it : as, " Greater tha~ 
I." " No other than he-" " Such as do well." 



CHAPTER III. 

OF THE REGIMEN, OR GOVERNMENT OF WORDS. 

One word has influence upon another and causes it to be in 
some particular case, mood, tense, number, or person. This is 
called the regimen, or government of words. 

§ 1. OF SUBSTANTIVES. 

Rule 8. The nominative case governs the verb: as, "Dick is idle. I 
am. Thou playest." 

1. To find the nominative case, see ob. 6. Rule 2. 

2. The meaning of this rule is this : In whatever case, number, or person 
the nominative is, the verb must be in the same number and person. 

3. In compound sentences, the elegance of language requires transposi- 
tions, whereby other words, or clauses, often intervene the nominative and 
the verb: as, u Caius Julius Cassar, who conquered the Gauls and Britons, 
and afterwards overthrew the government of his own country, in private 
life, was mild and courteous." 

4. A noun preceded by the pronoun what may be the nominative to two 
verbs : as, " It was agreed that what goods were aboard his vessel should 
be landed." 

5. Whomever is sometimes the object of a preposition and the nomina- 
tive to a verb : as, "I address this note to you to be delivered to whomever 
may be concerned." 

Rule 9. The infinitive mood is often the nominative to a verb : 
as, " For me to live is Christ ; but to die is gain." See rule 40. 

1. Besides being the nominative, the infinitive often governs the nomina- 
tive or objective after it : as, "To be blind is a misfortune." "To see the 
sun is charming." It has been supposed that the words associated with the 
infinitive, in all cases, are a part of the nominative. For the following 
reasons, this opinion is incorrect. 1. It is an absolute absurdity to say that 
other eases and parts of speech make an associated part of a nominative. 
A nominative is always a noun, and one only, or more than one coupled 
together. 2. In determinating the nominative, by asking the question, 
every thing, not a part of the nominative, is necessarily excluded, in the 
answer, and without injury to the sense. But, if any part of the real nom- 
inative is excluded, the sense is either incomplete, or destroyed. What is 
a misfortnne ? To be. What is charming ? To see. Whether to be blind, 
lame, deaf, or dumb, is altogether an adjectived circumstance of Jhe verbs. 



SYNTAX. 113 

So of to see the sun, or any other object. 3. If other proof is wanting, the 
changing of any such infinitive to a noun, gives it at once : as* Blindness 
is a misfortune. The sight of the sun is charming. This construction 
preserves the purity of the rule. We may, with as much propriety, say 
that the different words associated with any nominative, in a simple, or 
compound sentence, are a part of it, as that the different words associated 
with the infinitive are. See rule 47, ob. 19. 

2. Words associated with the infinitive are often only explanatory of that 
mood, and should be separated, by comma?, into a clause, by itself: as, 
u To die, for one's country, is glory." 

3. Whether one, or more infinitives make the nominative, the verb is al- 
ways irregular: as, "To love and fear God is man's duty." 

4. The infinitive often takes another infinitive,between it and the verb, 
to which it is a nominative : as, " To know how to support adversity is to 
deserve prosperity." 

5. Some have supposed that such infinitives have adjectives &c, agree- 
ing with them. It needs only the filling up of the elipsis to correct all 
such errors: as, " To be blind is unfortunate," i. e. an unfortunate thing. 
Or " to be blind is a misfortune." 

Rule 10. Verbal nouns take the same cases after them, as the 
verbs, from which they are derived: as, "on Christ's assuming 
human nature." " I heard of his being judge." 

1. They are called verbal nouns, because, tho' nouns, they retain all their 
verbal power and office. «- 

2. Verbal noun3 are always preceded by possessive pronouns, or nouns 
in the possessive case. See R. 14, ob. 15. 

3. They are some times used without the nominative, or objective case 
after them : as, "It is the Lord's doing." (a) 

(a) In all such cases, verbal nouns become mere nouns, and may be 
changed to other nouns of like import: as, "It is the Lord's work." 

4. A verbal noun often takes a verb after it : as, "Men's continuing in 
sin is the cause of their destruction." 

5. Possessive pronouns, when they preceed verbal nouns agree with 
them, as with other nouns : as, " His dieing reduced his family to poverty." 

6. Verbal nouns are made of the participles of all the verbs, and when 
such nouns are compounded, they should all be reduced to one word : as, 
1. Those formed of the participles present of the active voice : as, "I heard 
of his writing a book." 2. Of the perfect participles : as, "I heard of his ' 
having written a book." 3. Those formed of the present participles of the 
passive voice: as, " I heard of his being loved." 4. Of the perfect par- 
ticiple: as, "I heard of his having been loved by her," 5. Of those form- 
ed of the present participle middle : as, "I heard of his being loving her." 
6. Of the perfect participle middle : as, " I heard of his having been lov- 
ing her." 

The form of the present participle middle is inelegant and probably will 
never aquire much use, if any, though capable of use. 

7. In many cases, gerunds governing suceeding nouns, have been mis- 
taken for nouns. These errors have happened entirely from not supplying 
the elipsis : as, " He is skilled in the art of writting [letters]. 

8. Verbal nouns often govern the possessive : as, " His being taught the 
arts and sciences, renders him a useful citizen." The participle may be 
either present or past, and so may the verb, as occasion may require. 

9. Verbal nouns are like other nouns, when nominatives to verbs, and 
when they govern the possessive case, end when governed by prepositions. 
They are like participles, when they govern the nominative, or adjective 
case. 

10. The scholar must distinguish between verbal nouns and nouns formed 



114 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of present participles. See ob. 1, 6, 7, of this rule. For pure nouns, form- 
ed of present participles, are formed of the present participles only, and 
conform only to the syntax of nouns. They are such as these : being, 
learning, writing, &c: as, u Our being is the gift of Cod." " Learning is 
ornamental." "Our understanding makes us useful." " Writing is a 
necessary art." A further distinction is that verbal nouns are always, so 
far as I have been able to discover, accompanied by possessive pronouns, or 
nouns, in the possessive case. See also Rule 42. 

11. Verbal nouns often govern the possessive precedent and the objective 
subsequent: as, "This is what our law calls giving, livery, and seizen : the 
Lord's or his deputy's delivering and the tenent's relieving and taking 
seizen and possession." 

Rule 11. A noun of multitude may be the nominative to a 
verb, either in the singular, or plural number : as, " The army 
was routed." "The people were appeased." 

1. When the idea is collective, the multitude being considered one whole 
number, the noun is singular. When distributive, that is referring to the 
individuals separately, or divided into classes, or bodies, the noun is 'plural. 

2. Sometimes the sense is collective, in the former part of the sentence, 
and distributive, in the latter : as, " Congress has assembled, and they have 
commenced business." " The army was routed, as soon as they began the 
onset." Particular care should be taken to distinguish the singular from 
t he plural, in all such cases. 

3. Sometimes a sentence is distributive, in the former and latter members, 
and collective, in the intermediate : as, " And they, who heard, being con- 
victed by conscience, went out, one, by one, [they] beginning at the elders, 
unto the last." 

4. Collective nouns, when applied to politic, or corporate bodies, are al- 
ways singular : as, " A nation, a town, an assembly." This is always the 
case, when the indefinite article is used. 

5. When number and quantity are spoken of, in the abstract, without 
any reference to the individuals, the noun is always singular: as, u The 
quantity of provisions produced, this year, is immense." "The number of 
people assembled, on that occasion, was very great." 

Rule 12. Two or more nouns singular, connected by a con- 
junctive conjunction require the noun, pronoun, adjective verb, 
and participle, agreeing with them to be in the plural: as, " De- 
mosthenes and Cicero were excellent orators/' they excelled all 
the ancients. 

1. This rule is often violated: as, "And so also was [were] John and 
James, the sons of Zebedee." " All joy, tranquility and peace doth dwell 
[dwell] with thee." 

2. When nonns are nearly related, in sense, some say that the agreeing 
terms may be in the singular : as, " Ignorance and negligence has [have] 
produced the effect. " This opinion is wrong; for the relationship of terms 
alters not the rule, which is founded on abstract and unvarying principles. 
And besides, similarities are not identities. And they say also that the con- 
cordant term is separately understood with each. This also is incorrect ; 
for this only happens, in disjunctive sentences, which are formed on princi- 
ples entirely different. This error is exactly of a piece, with all others. 
When a man commits one, and justifies it, he must justify it by another; 
and, the farther he proceeds, in this way, the worse he is, both in principle 
*.nd fact. 



SYNTAX. 115 

Rule 13. Two or more nouns singular connected by a disjunct- 
ive conjunction, require the noun, pronoun, adjective, verb, and 
participle agreeing with each, to be in the singular number : as, 
"John, or James, or Joseph will accompany me." 

1. When we consider the rule rightly, we see that plural concordants 
cannot belong to a disjunctive sentence of singular terms, for the antecedent 
terms being disconnected, the concordant terms agree with each separately, 
which necessarily makes them all singular. 

2. We will notice a few violations of this rule : as, "A man may see a 
metaphor, or an allegory, in a picture, as well as read them [it] in a fable.*' 
" Neither character, nor dialogue were [was] yet understood." 

3. When different persons are disjunctively connected, the concordant 
words must agree with the last, and be understood with the others : as, 
"Thou, or I, or he is wrong." 

4. So, if they are of different numbers and genders : as, u Neither poverty, 
nor riches, nor honor has injured him." 

Rule 14. One substantive governs another signifying a different 
thing and implying property, in the possessive case: as, "Peter's 
wife's mother." " Man's happiness." 

1. •In -English, we have two ways of signifying possession. 1. By the 
possessive case, according to this rule. 2. By the use of the preposition of, 
in the objective case : as, "Honesty is the glory of man." In all cases, 
when the possession is signified by of, the noun, which would succeed and 
govern the other, according to the rule, preceeds the other, having the pre- 
position between them, governing the noun, which, otherwise, would be in 
the possesion. See possessive case of nouns, and the preposition of among 
the prepositions. Ob. 1, Rule 10. 

2. We some times .find three possessive forms, with of in the objective, in 
succesion : as, " The severity of the distress of th&s&&qfihe king, touched 
the nation." Better thus : " The severe dist?a§s of tha king's son, &c. 

3. Care should be taken in the use of of for it some times signifies ex- 
traction, posterity, &c, having the sense of from, according io % or outof 
When of means possession, it may be dismissed, and the noun, which it 
governs, be put into the possessive case, according to the rule, and the same 
sense preserved. But, when it means extraction, it cannot be so changed. 

4. The noun governing the possessive is often understood: as, "He went 
to St. Peter's [church]." 

5. Nouns are often in apposition, in the possessive: as, "I bought it at 
Mr. Dobson's, the bookseller's (shopj." 

6. Several nouns, in the possessive, not separable by commas, the sign of 
possession should be used only on the last: as, "The emperor Leopold's 
army." "For David my servant's sake." 

7. When the nouns are separable by commas, the sign should be affixed 
to each : as, " I bought it at Mr. Dobson's, the bookseller's shop." See 
Rule 1. 

8. Several nouns, in the possessive, connected by conjunctions, should 
have the sign affixed to each : as, "This is John's and James', and Joseph's 
and William's book." 

9. Some times pronouns in the possessive case are governed by nouns 
understood : as, " This book is mine, that is thine." 

10. The sign of the possessive should always be affixed to single terms, 
whatever may be their terminations, unless it makes the pronunciation dif- 
ficult and the sound uncooth. See declension of nouns. But this must be 
governed, in some measure, by good taste. 

11. In compound sentences, a clause should never intervene the posses 



16 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sive and the noun governing it: as, " She began to extoll the farmer's, as 
she called him, excellent understanding." 

12. We have one methed of forming the possessive differing from the 
rule and from ob. 1. It is when two possessives come together, the first 
being formed by s, with the apostrophe, and the second, by of, in the ob- 
jective, having the possessive sign belonging to the former term attached to 
the latter, for the ease and elegance of pronunciation : as, " The king of 
England's soldiers." " The king of Spain's navy." In all such cases, the 
noun preceding the of is in the possessive, and governed by the one follow- 
ing the one bearing the sign of possession. This is the effect of transposi- 
tion, as will fully appear, by putting the words in their natural order: as, 
" The king^s soldiers of England." "The king's navy of Spain." " The 
army of the king of Spain." 

13. When a relative is understood, after the possessive case, the terms, 
in the following clause, are not in opposition to the possessive, in the pre- 
vious clause, as some have supposed, but in the nominative after the verb 
agreeing with the relative : as, " I tarried a month at Lord Littleton's 
(seat, who was) the ornament of his country, and friend to every virtue." 
So when a question is asked and an answer given : as, "Whose glory did 
he emulate? " " Csesar's, the greatest general of antiquity." i. e. Caesar's 
glory, who was the greatest, &c. 

14. Adjectives are sometimes used emphatically, as nouns, in the posses- 
sive : as, " I will not destroy it tor ten's sake." 

15. Verbal nouns often govern the possessive : as, see ob. 11, rule 10. 

Rale 15. Substantives signifying want, or necessity, require 
the possessive form, with of after them : as, " He has need of 
money." " He is in want of help." 

1. Some may, perhaps, suppose this rule to be useless, as contained under 
other rules. But this form of possession is peculiar to itself, being adopted 
into the English directly from the Latin. 

Rule 16. Substantives govern the Infinitive, whether they be 
in the nominative or objective : as, *' His ambition to excel is 
commendable." " He has a willingness to accommodate others." 

1. The infinitive may be changed to a gerund; but the expression is not 
so elegant: as, "His ambition of excelling," &c. 

2. The infinitive may have a verb after it agreeing with the noun, or an 
objective after it, if active, or a nominative, if neuter. 

3. When the noun is the nominative to a verb, after the infinitive, that 
the infinitive may not be mistaken for the nominative, or a part thereof, see 
ob. 1, rule 9. 

4. Substantive pronoun*, adjectives and participles used substantively 
conform to this rule : as, " I taught him to wright. Worthy to die. I 
thought his writing to have been better." 

5. When the nominative takes the infinitive after it, the possessive pro- 
noun governed by of often intervenes the nominative and infinitive: as, 
" How is this conduct of theirs to be reconciled with the principles of com- 
mon honesty? " 

§ 2. OF PRONOUNS. 

Rule 17. Substantive pronouns have the same rules applied to 
them, as substantives: as, " He is the Lord, who preserves me." 

Rule 18. If no nominative comes between the relative and the 



SYNTAX. 117 

verb, the relative is the nominative: as, " Jehovah, who made the 
world, is eternal." 

1. Some times the relative becomes interrogative, and it then agrees with 
the noun, rule 6. In interrogatives, in the masculine and feminine genders, 
the antecedent is generally contained in the term : as, "Who did it." i. e. 
what man. And frequently in the neuter also : as, <c What aileth thee." 

2. When the relative and antecedent are both, in the nominative, the rel- 
ative takes the former, and the antecedent the latter verb : as, " True phi- 
losophy, which is the ornament of our nature, consists more in the love of 
our duty, and the practice of virtue, than in great talents." 

3. In the following sentence, than refers to the noun : as, "It admitted 
no effectual cure, other than (which was not) amputation." Than is one of 
the most abbreviating words, in the language, and the reason why it has 
been so much misunderstood^ is> that proper care has not been taken to sup- 
ply the elipsis. 

Rule 19. If a nominative conies between the relative and the 
verb, the relative is the object of the verb, or a preposition : as, 
"Jehovah, whom we worship, is eternal." "I have just been 
reading Addison, than whom, no one is purer in his style." 

1. See ob. 1, rule 18, for relatives are interrogatives, under this rule, as 
well as that; " Whom shall I take tvith me ? " " What shall I do ? " 

2. Who, is always masculine, or feminine. What is of either gender, as 
occasion may require. Which, is always neuter. 

3. When the relative is governed by a preposition, the preposition should 
immediately preceed the relative. The practice, therefore, of putting the 
preposition at the end of the clause, or sentence, is very inelegant; as, 
"The man, whom I voted /or, has great talents." 

4. Among good writers, great neglect has prevailed in not noticing, if the 
verb is active, or neuter : as, Who (whomj should I esteem more, than the 
virtuous and the good." "Those are the persons, who (whom) he thought 
true.* 

5. Worth and cost, often govern relatives, by this rule. See rule 22. 

§ 3. OF ADJECTIVES. 

Rule 20. Adjectives signifying fatigue, worth, and difficulty, 
require the possessive form, with of in the objective singular, after 
them : as, " Weary of life. Worthy of death. Difficult of en- 
trance." 

1. Some other adjectives conform occassionally to this rule. 

Rule 21. Adjectives often govern the infinitive : as, " Worthy 
to die. Ready to depart. Mighty to save." 

1. They are such as these ; good, bad, eager, ready, easy, pleasant, neces- 
sary, difficult, hard, agreeable, apt, witty, and some others, as occasion may 
require. 

Rule 22. Adjectives of likeness and worth, govern the object- 
ive : as, " He looks like his father." " This hat is worth a dollar.'* 

1. Some will have the preposition, to, understood, after like : as, " He 
looks like to, or like unto his father." The language is certainly better and 
neater, without the preposition, and I believe the better and general opinion 
is, that the preposition belongs not to such sentences. 



118 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

2. Some prefer to have as, understood, after like . as, " He looks as his 
father." But this form is so little used that I suppose that circumstance 
alone, sufficient to disallow the use of as, in all such sentences. See ob. 9, 
rule 6. , 

Rule 23. Partitives, numerals, interrogatives, comparatives, su- 
perlatives, and adjectives taken partitively, require the possessive 
form, with of, in the objective plural, after them: as, " One of the 
sisters. The first of men. The elder of the two* Thou holy 
One of God. Whether of the two." 

§ 4. OF ADVERBS. 

Rule 24. Adverbs are associated with adjectives, verbs, parti- 
ciples, and adverbs to qualify and explain them : as, " Very fine 
weather." " He reads elegantly." 

1. Though adverbs have no government, they require a proper place in 
the sentence; for, where they are properly used, much of the beauty, ele- 
gance, and perspicuity of language depends on their location, and no single 
part of speech, in the general run of language, is so badly located. For 
the most part, they precede adjectives and succeed verbs : as, " He gave a 
very scientific discourse. He spake unaffectedly." 

2. Some times it precedes the verb, and, in compound sentences, inter- 
venes the auxiliary and the principal verb : as, " Vice always creeps by 
degrees, and insensibly twines around us those concealed fetters, by which 
we are at last completely bound." See ob. 14, rule 24, 

3. The adverb should be placed as near the word, which it qualifies, as 
the sense and harmony will admit, 

4. Prepositions, which are component parts of verbs, and often placed 
after the verbs, have, by mistake, been called adverbs ; as, " And they came 
up out of the water," See obs, 4, 5, rule 26, 

5. A few instances of the improper location of the adverb ; as, " He must 
not expect to find study agreeable alway (always agreeable)," " We always 
find them ready ('always ready^)," Some times the adverb is properly placed 
at the end of the clause, or sentence. See ob, 15, rule 6, 

6. When an adverb qualifies an adverb, it should immediately precede the 
other adverb. 

7. The adverb there, is in continual use, in written and spoken language, 
without sense, or meaning; as, "There is a man at the door," "There 
was a man sent from God, whose name was John." The language, in all 
cases, except when a direct reference to place is made, would be much bet- 
ter without the adverb ; for words, which convey no meaning, are not only 
a burthen to the language, but a blemish to the sense. 

8. Ever and never are some times improperly used as synonymous terms. 
They are not, and never should be so used, And the reason is, because 
ever is positive and never, negative, and positives and negatives never can 
be synonymous, 

9. Never, in sentences like the following, has been supposed, by some, to 
be improperly used : as, " Ask me never so much dowry," i, e* so much, as 
never was asked before. "The voice of charmers, charming never so wise- 
ly," i. e. so wisely as never was charmed before. People have fallen into 
this error, by not understanding and supplying the elipsis, 

10. Where is frequently used for in which : as, "They framed the protes- 
tation, where [in which] they repeated all their former claims." This form 
of expression is improper, for where refers to place only, and has no proper 
reference to thing. It is counter term to there* 

11. Hence, thence^ and whence mean from this place, or time, from that 



SYNTAX. 119 

place, or time, from what place, or time. The preposition from is frequent- 
ly used, and, when used, governs whichever word is used, in the objective 
case. These forms are good English, though the language is neater with- 
out the prepositiion. See chapter on adverbs and their definitions. 

12. Here, there and ichere, are often used with verbs of motion, as synon- 
ymous with hither, thither and whither-, as, u He came here" [hither]. 
"They rode there" {thither). "He went tohere (whither) he pleased." 
Against such errors, writers should guard. It should also be noticed that 
hither, thither and whither, are the counter terms to hence, thence and whence', 
the former signifying approach, the latter, departure. 

13. Adverbs are often governed by prepositions, expressed ; as, " In 1637, 
he erected them into a community, since ichen, it has begun to increase." 

14. And some times they appear to have adjectives agreeing with them, 
but do not : as, " His vessel had lain at Central wharf^ near ( the place^) 
where the malignant fever prevailed." 

15. Adverbs, which qualify adjectives and participles also qualify the verbs 
used in the same sentence. 

16. Some suppose that certain adverbs govern the infinitive : as, "He is 
likely to be spoiled." But the adverb only qualifies, the other verb and has 
nothing to do with the infinitive, except to impart its qualifying influence 
to it, as it does to the other verb. 

17. The adverb enough, is often used as a common noun both in the nom- 
inative and objective ; as, "Enough wine is poured out." "He has taken 
enough wine." The preposition of is understood before wine, in each of 
these examples. See rule 14, ob. 1. 

18. Satis, in the Latin, which corresponds to our word, enough, in such 
sentences, governs the genitive, our possessive. 



§5. 



OF VERBS. 



Rule 25. Neuter verbs take the same case after, as before 
them, when both words refer to the same thing : as, '^J ohn is a 
good boy." See rules 26 and 31. R. 39, ob. 2. 

1. If the nominative precedes, the nominative must follow. If the ob- 
jective precedes, the objective must follow. 

2. Passive verbs, when of a neuter signification, conform to this rule. 

3. It has generally been supposed that, when the latter verb refers to a 
thing different from the former, the neuter verb takes the objective after it, 
that is, the verb becomes active : as, " The boy becomes a man." 

4. This is an idle distinction. For all verbs are active, or neuter, and I 
have introduced the remark here for the purpose of denying the principle. 
We have probably no neuter verbs, in the English, except am and exist. 
Perhaps some verbs may be neuter by position, when a preposition falls in, 
between the verb and objective, and takes away the governing power of the 
verb. And, whether any verb is active, or neuter, depends altogether on 
its position. See definition of active and neuter verbs. 

Rule 26. When the latter word refers to a thing different from 
the former, the verb takes the objective after it. That is, it be- 
comes active: as, "The coat becomes him." See rule 32. 

1 . Such verbs, in all cases, conform to all the circumstances of active 
verbs. 

2. Many verbs are, by mistake, supposed to be neuter, because the elipsis 
is not supplied: as, " His fortune increases (its quantity.") "The storm 
abates (its violence.") See verbs, and remarks on them. 

Rule 27. A neuter verb standing between two nominatives, the 



120 ENGLISH GRAMMAR* 

latter affirming some thing of the former, must agree with the 
former: as, "Men are vanity ." 

1. Some suppose that the compounding of neuter verbs with prepositions, 
makes them active ; as, u He overslept himself." "He upset the chaise." 
This is a mistake. Verbs are active or neuter according to the signification 
of the radical term, and not by force of the preposition. And I doubt if 
we have any verbs, in the English, except am and exist, which are neuter, 
except by position. The notion of neuter verbs, if not already, must be 
soon exploded, except by position. For it is only the inattention of teachers, 
which has made so many. And it is questionable if am and exist are neu- 
ter except by position ; as, " He existed (subsisted, or maintained) himself." 
"He is himself again." Some, perhaps, Would hold is, in this case, to be 
neuter, and 1 am of that opinion. But exist, in the above example, is un- 
questionably active, 

2. Some suppose sleep, look, and many others to be neuter, which is 
wholly wrong; as, "I looked (a look) at her." "He slept a sleep too 
much last night." "He slept himself to death." 

3. Some confound sit and set, and use them as synonymus. This is a 
mistake. Sit means to compose one's self to a seat. Set means to stop, op- 
pose, resist, or hinder one. Authors should be careful to Use words, which 
convey their ideas correctly. 

4. The great and finishing ornament of all languages is the proper and 
elegant composition of words. In the composition of nouns, nouns and 
adjectives are used. In the composition of verbs, prepositions are mostly 
used, and where the sense will admit, -the preposition should be pre-incor- 
porated with the verb : as, " To overcome, upset &c." But sometimes the 
sense will not admit : as, "To overcome means to conquer, and upset to 
turn upside down, and to come over means to come to or join with, and to 
set up means to establish. But prepositions, if placed after the verbs, with 
which they are associated, are as much a component part of those verbs, as 
when pre-incorporated with them, although I know it has become a com- 
mon, if not a uniform practice, to call all prepositions adverbs, which are 
placed after verbs, with which they are associated. But this is wrong. 
They do not become adverbs, when placed after the verbs, any more than 
when pre-incorporated with them. And, if any one wishes to know, with 
certainty, if such prepositions are really adverbs, just turn to the chapter of 
adverbs, and see and notice the rule for determining when-any word is an 
adverb, and then see if such prepositions can be made to conform to that 
rule, for that rule is absolute and never fails. If writers and speakers were 
but fully sensible how much our language can be inriched in this way, they 
would be much more careful to do it. See ob. 3, rule 24. 

5. Many have supposed that placing a preposition after an active verb 
makes it neuter. This mistake happens from not filling up the elipsis : as, 
" He winked (his eye) at her." "He ran (a race) with me." I have com- 
mented thus largely, because the general opinion of grammarians seemed 
to have almost established these errors, as facts. 

Rule 28. Verbs of gesture take the objective after them: as, 
" I, who move majestically, the queen of heaven, am known by 
my gait." The whole sentence should read thus : " I, who move 
myself majestically, am the queen of heaven, and am known by 
my gait." 

1. Verbs of this description, in conformity with the Latin language, have 
been considered to take the nominative after them. But we have nothing 
to do with Latin idiom, nor any other idiom, in applying syntax to our own 
language. And this has always been the scandal and misfortune of our 



SYNTAX, 121 

fcmguage, that.our litterati have been constantly turning to the Latin and 

Greek, for the syntax of our language, instead of studying and understand- 
ing it as it is, and endeavoring to use its true system and beauties. 

Rule 29. Passive verbs of naming and calling, take the nom- 
inative after them : as, " His name was called Jesus." 

Rule 30. Passive verbs, except those of naming and calling, 
take the objective after them, with a preposition: as, "Elvira is 
loved by Seth." 

1, It is remarkable, in the passive verbs, how the agent and object change 
places. Here Seth is the agent and is governed by the preposition, and 
Elvira is the object and is the nominative to the verb, is Iczcd. And all 
passive verbs, except those of naming and calling, form and operate in the 
same way*. 

2. When a passive verb, in the infinitive follows the objective case, it 
takes the objective after it ; as, " Then they knew that island to be called 
Malta, Acts 28, 1. See rule 25. 

Rule 31. Middle verbs, being always active or neuter, conform 
to the syntax of active and neuter verbs. 

Rule 32. Third personal verbs are neuter, when they relate to 
nothing but the nominative case, or when both words refer to the 
same thing : as, "It was he." " It is I." See rule 24. 

Rule 33. When third personal verbs relate to something beside 
the nominative case, or when the latter words mean a different 
thing from the former, they take the objective after them. See 
rule 25: as, "It rains [drops of water."] " It snows [flakes of 
snow."] " It pleased her." 

Rule 34. Verbs signifying an affection of the mind require the 
possessive form with of in the objective singular, after them : as, 
" He is of a good disposition." " She is of a pleasant temper." 

Rule 35. Active verbs govern the objective case: as, "Seth 
loves Eliza." The Lord knoweth them, who are his." 

1. In the natural order of words, the nominative stands first, the verb 
next, and the object after the verb. For the sake of harmony, melody and 
measure, this order is often entirely changed by transposition : as, u Whom 
ye ignorantly worship, him declare I unto you." 

2. In many sentences, grammarians have mistaken the latter member of 
a compound pronoun, for the object of a neuter verb, as they call it. This 
error, in fact, contains two. For the whole compound pronoun is the adiu-: 
inative. The verb being active, another word is the object : as, '■ He repents 
himself,'' i. e., He himself repents the folly of that jact. "Tie king soon, 
found reason to repent him of having provoked such enemies." This is not 
good English and we should not attempt to apply rules to bad, but correct 
the errors. u The king himself soon found- reason to repent the p oMcv -f 
having provoked such enemies." These are very striking examples to show 
us the impropriety of separating the members of compound words, which 
leads to many mistakes, in syntax. It should never be done, except for pc- 
etic measure, and to this all others must yeild. In such sentences, by 
changing the verb from a personal to a third personal, we fetch the terms 

6 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

single; as, "It repents him." "It repented the king, &c." See third 
personal verbs defined. 

3. In sentences like the following, active verbs have been generally sup- 
posed to be neuter: as, "Those that think to ingratiate [themselves] with 
him," "And the Lord spake [these words] unto Moses," 

4. Verbs in the imperative never take the objective after them of the 
second person, except those signifying mental affection; as, "Love thyself, 
respect thyself, regard thyself, &c. It is therefore, against every principle 
of grammar, to place the objective case of the second person, after verbs of 
any other signification : as, " O thou seer, go, flee thee [thou] away into 
the land of Judea," 

5. The verb see, and perhaps some others, sometimes governs two objec- 
tives of the person: as, "To see thee so [or such a being,] as I have seen 
thee, in the Sanctuary." "Did I request thee, Maker, from my clay, to 
mould me man? " 

6. Sometimes verbs govern two objectives, one of the person and the 
other of the thing: as, "God seems to have made him what he was." 
" Ask him his opinion." "You have asked me the news." These are 
pure English idiom and have come down to us, from the old Celtic. The 
same idiom has also extended to the other branches of that language, the 
Greek and Latin. 

7. Webster, in rule 30, says that the clause, or member of a sentence 
may be the object of a verb : as, " He is not alarmed so far, as to consider 
how much nearer he approaches to his end." This is wholly a mistake. 
Nothing is or can be the object of a verb, but a substantive, or some other 
part of speech used as a substantive. It is not in the nature or power of 
language to be otherwise. All languages are radically alike, nouns and 
verbs, and only differ, in their different w r ays, manners and extents of ad- 
jectiving them, and the different manner of applying and associating those 
adjectived forms. 

It is the nature of nouns, and a part of their office, to be the result of re- 
mark and argument. And, when the truth of any proposition, in this way, 
is settled, the result is reduced to a single term, and this term not the clause 
nor sentence, but is the object of the verb. If this was not the case, no end 
could ever be to argument, nor deduction therefrom, nor any truth ever be 
discovered nor proved. It is remarkable that the literati have blundered so 
upon this point, and also in supposing that an infinitive, clause, or member 
is the nominative to a verb. In the example, muck is the noun and koto is 
explanatory of it and also of both verbs. One great error, into which peo- 
ple have fallen, is that certain classes of speech qualify only certain other 
classes. The fact is that all classes are qualifying terms, upon each other, 
as they are differently arranged and associated together, in discourse. 

8. An adjective, in the neuter gender, used as a noun, may be the object 
of an active verb, and still perform the office of an adverb, in qualifying 
the same verb: as, "Seneca moralizes well." 

9. Some passive verbs govern the objective ; as, " If he shall be refused 
her in marriage." "The Abbotts and Bishops were allowed their seats." 

10. The preposition of by careless and ignorant writers and speakers, is 
often flung between an active verb and its object; as, "It admitted of no 
other cure." Sometimes an object is understood before the preposition, 
and then it is proper ; as, "It is the natural process of the mind, in judging 
[something] of new objects." 

Rule 36. Verbs signifying permission, commnnication and 
knowledge take the objective after them, with the infinitive: as, 
" He let me go." s "He stimulates his scholars to learn." "I 
knew him to be qualified for his office." 

Rule 37. A noun or pronoun standing alone, as an answer to 



SYNTAX. l£ 

a question, is either the nominative to the verb answering the 
question, or the object of it, or of a preposition expressed, or un- 
derstood : as, "Who did this? John." "What is her name? 
Eliza." "For whom laborest thou?* Mr. Smith. 

1. When a preposition precedes and governs the interrogative, the same 
preposition governs the answer. 

Rule 38. Verbs of buying, selling, imparting and receiving, 
take two objectives "after them, one of the person governed by a 
preposition, and the other of the thing governed by the verb : as, 
"I bought him a farm." "He gave me an apple." "He re- 
ceived the money for me." 

1. Somes times both nouns are of the thing : as, " He received the pay 
for his services." 

2. When the preposition is understood, the objective case of the person 
precedes the thing. 

Rule 39. The verb cost governs two objectives, one of the 
person and the other of the thing : as, " It cost him fifty pounds." 

Rule 40. Verbs of naming, habit, and manner, take two objec- 
tives after them : as, " God called the dry land earth." 

1. Some suppose this rule is contained under rule ], and some suppose a 
difference is sufficient to make the rule proper. I have, therefore, given 
the rule that others may consider the case, and follow their own fancy. 

Rule 41. One verb governs another in the infinitive: as, "'He 
learns to read." 

1. For definition of the infinitive and its character see the infinitive 
mood and remarks thereon, 

2. This mood of the verb is always in nature of a noun, and may, in all 
cases, probably be resolved into a noun ; as, " He learns to read, or he learns 

fading," See rule f). It is often used absolute. See rule 56, It is there- 
fore, necessary to distinguish this mood, by the prefix to, to distinguish it 
from the noun, as it has no number nor person associated with it' Seer, 56, 

3. Webster, grammar, page 177, says it follows the preposition fo?-, in 
certain cases, denoting cause, or motive: as, "What went ye out for to 
see? " But a careful observation will show that for, in all cases, is the to- 
ken of the clause of a compound sentence; as, " What went ye out [for 
what purpose] to see ? " Answer, " A reed shaken with the wind." And 
in all cases, the language is much better, by ommittlng for; as, " What ye 
out to see." 

4. The infinitive should never be used for a gerund : as, " Willis, in driv- 
incr his team, met with a hurt, on the road, which disabled him to proceed 
[from preceding] farther." 4 Ms. K. 589. 

5. The infinitive is some times governed by a preposition ; as, 

41 For, not to have been dipt in Lethe lake, 
Could save the son of Thetis from to die." 

To die is here used instead of death, merely for the sake of making out 
the measure. This is something after the Greek manner of using their 
article with the infinitive. 

Coinly, grammar, p. 1C7, rule J 8, says, " Verbs in the infinitive mood are 
governed by the preposition to : as, 'Bid him beware' " We might just as 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

well say, that the terminatian, in the infinitive, in the Latin and Greek 
governs the infinitive, for it is no matter whether it is a prefix or affix, it is 
the mark of the mood and a part of it. 

§ 6. ' OF PARTICIPLES. 

Rule 42. Participles take the same case after them, as the verbs 
from which they are derived: as, " We found him transgressing 
the laws." 

1, Participles, in many cases, have been called prepositions and conjunct 
tions, merely from neglect in not supplying the ellipsis : as. "And lie said, 
hinder me not, [ye] seeing that the Lord hath prospered my way." Giv- 
incr, granting accepting, and some others, have been mistaken, in the same 
way. 

2. When the participle is absolute with a noun in the nominative, it is 
not the nominative to the following verb; but the pronoun ?>, expressed or 
understood, is the nominative : as, " He having been taught the arts and 
sciences, [it] rendered him a useful citizen." 

Rule 43. The definite article placed before and the preposition 
of after a pre.-ent participle, makes it a noun: as, " The loving of 
our enemies is the will of God." 

1. The noun may be used instead of the participle : as, " The love of out 
enemies is the will of God." But the participle carries this excellency with 
it, which gives it a preference t© the noun, it expresses act and energy 
which the noun can not 

2. Some times the article is understood, and some times the proposition, 
and some times both. Bat they should only be understood, when poetc 
measure requires it. 

3. Many of Mir best writers are careless, in the use of present participles, 
in not so tram ing* their sentences, as to show if they are nouns, participles, 
or gerunds. Fur, when participles, they should have the sign of neither 
the noun, nor gerund. When they are made nouns or gerunds, the proper 
signs should not be omitted. 

4. That the words associated with the participle, under this rule, may 
never be, by mistake, supposed to be a part of the nominative, see ob. i, 
rule 9. 

Rule 44. Participles often govern the infinitive: as, "I saw 

him trying to learn." " Born but to die, and reasoning but to err.' 

§ 6. OF GERUNDS. 

Rule 45. Gerunds take .the same case after them, as the verbs 
from which thev are derived : as, Ci By reading and rejecting, we 
grow wise." " On being accused, he fled." 

Rule 46. Gerunds often govern the infinitive : as, " In learning 
to read is great delight." " By striving to learn." 

§ 7. OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Rule 47. Prepositions govern the objective case: as, "Efe 
lives in town." " I gave it to him," 

1. When several words, coupled together, are governed by the samo pre- 



SYNTAX. 1C5 

position, it should be omitted after the first: as, "He went to Boston, New 
York and Baltimore." 

2. AVhen different prepositions govern, the relation between the different 
terms being expressed by them, they should all be expressed: as, "He 
went from Boston, through Hartford, to New York*" 

3. Prepositions are frequently understood, especially before pronouns: as, 
" Give [to] me that book." "He was banished [from] his country/' 

4. lunch controversy has been concerning «, when used as a preposition. 
Wallace supposes it to be the contraction of at. Alexander and Took de- 
rive it from the Saxon and Gothic preposition on, which, in those langua- 
ges meant in. . When used before nouns, it is probably the corruption of 
that preposition. When used before our present participles, it may also be 
derived from the same source. But I am rather inclined to think that it is 
the corruption of our preposition ahout, as it retains all the force and mean- 
ing of that preposition: as, "I am a walking, or about waking." M, in all 
such cases, is a common prefix to the present participles and may be used, 
or not at pleasure, whether derived from r??,, at or about. It alters not the 
sense of the participle, which may be used just as well without, as with it, 
and seems to be used merely for effect, fancy, or emphasis. And it should 
he noticed that, in all such cases, am is associated with the participle, which 
forms and makes the indicative mood present tense of the middle voices. 
This shews also the importance of that inflection of the verbs called the 
middle voice. See a treated of and explained among the prepositions. 

5. We have another form in the use of a, with the present participle, af- 
ter the passive, and sometimes the active verb, which makes a pure gerund: 
as, •' He is gone a hunting" (game.) "He went a hunting " (squircls.) 
" lie has been a hunting" [deer.] (a) 

(a) Or such sentences may be resolved into -nouns : as, "He went on a 
hunting party, after squirels," «fcc. 

6. On is sometimes contracted to o : as, "It is two o'clock,'' i. e. two 
hours on the clock." 

7. particle, in some cases, has been mistaken for «, preposition: as, 
" Sugar is a [one] shilling a [one] pound." 

6. It is not elegant to let a clause intervene the preposition and its object: 
as, " To suppose the zodiac and planets efficient of, and antecedent to, 
themselves, is ab-urd." 

J) We should be careful to use proper prepositions, for the whole mean- 
ing of a sentence is often changed, by changing the preposition, or using a 
wrong one : as, " We say we are disappointed of a thing, when we can not 
get it, and disappointed in a thing, when it answers not oui* purpose." To 
say we are disappointed lo, with, or for a thing, would convey no meaning 
at all. 

10. Prepositions should not be used, in a place proper for a conjunction : 
as, " A combat between twenty English ngainsi [and] thii ;y Britons." 

11. A preposition should not be used between an active verb and its ob- 
ject: as, " She admits of his address " 

12. The same preposition should follow a noun, which naturally follows 
a verb : as, " I comply with. In compliance loith" $rc. 

13. When the objective follows a neuter verb, it is governed by a prepo- 
sition : as, " I am with you." 

14. In particular things, some prepositions are syncymous : as, "A man 
expert in. ui>h, or at a thing." 

15. Care should be taken to use proper prepositions before nouns signify- 
ing places and names of places, 1, The place of approach is noted by to. 
2 The place, of departure, by from. 3. The place we pass without entering, 
by by. 4. The plaee we pass by entering, by through. 5. The place where 
we arrive, is signified by at or in. 6. in common speech to is often used 
for at : as, " He is to (at) home." 

16. Of has various significations, and care should be taken to use it sre^ 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

erly. 1. It signifies extraction : as, " He was born not of the will of the 
flesh." 2. Disposition, and intention: as, u He died of his own accord." 
3. It signifies property : as, " To do the will of him, who sent me." 

17. These are the leading traits of the prepositions. To be more mioute 
would be more labor than profit. The scholar must learn of his own skill, 
to distinguish the proper places and uses of them. 

18. Who,- in interrogative sentences, is often used improperly after a 
preposition : as, u Who do you speak to?" To ickom do you speak ? 

19. Webster, rule 40, says, "Prepositions govern sentences, members of 
sentences and clauses." This is wholly wrong. Prepositions never govern 
any tbincr, except nouns and their substitutes, in the objective. Stje rule 9, 
ob. 1. 

20. The preposition, of sometimes governs the possessive case : as, (t Kin- 
dle a flame of sacred love, in these cold hearts of ours." " A friend of ours, 
who resides in town." "And to his heavenly kingdom keep, this feeble 
soul of mine." "A friend of mine remarked some time ago." "And 
earth's gay trifles oft ensnare, this wand'ring heart of mine." u How is 
this conduct of theirs to be reconciled with the principles of common hon- 
esty." Of is the only preposition we have signifying property or possession, 
and, of course, the only one which can govern the possessive. This may 
be a novelty, in syntax ; but I am satisfied after much reflection, that it is 
true. 

21. In sentences like the following, other than have been, hy mistake, 
called prepositions : as, "He admitted no effectual cure other than amputa- 
tion." The only thing wanting to set all right, is a comma between them. 
In all such sentences, other is placed at the end of the clause, because it is 
eraphatieal, it still agreeing with its noun, and than being a relative refer- 
ring to the same noun, which is plainly seen, by changing it to zohich, with 
its accompanying negative : as, M It admitted no other effectual cure, which 
was not amputation." 

22 All bat has been called a preposition : as, "They were happy, all but 
the stranger." But is the preposition, and all, an adjective. "I am all but 
dead," i. e. all dead but, or except what is not dead. 

23. In many cases of is associated with the verb, as an adjunct. It is, in 
all such cases, used as a part of the verb, having no government, as a pre- 
position: as, u How is it spoken of, by the prophet." It is rather a weak- 
ness, in our language, that we are occassionally, obliged to use some prepo- 
sitions, in this way, to give a meaning to the verbs. All writers and 
speakers of classic taste will avoid these forms, as much as possible. 

Rule 48. Participles having no concordance with nouns, be- 
come gerunds, by prefixing prepositions: as, "In keeping thy 
commandments is great reward." " He was weary with doing 
well." 

Rule 49. Prepositions govern gerunds in the objective singular : 
as, " By reading we learn. 5J 

1. The following are the principal prepositions governing gerunds: by, 
with, from, in, on, upon, of, without, beside. 

2. As a farther proof that gerunds are really a distinct part of speech, it 
may be noticed how easily they are converted into nouns : as, " By reading" 
books we learn." "By the reading of books we learn." 

§ 8. OF CONJUNCTIONS. 

Rule 50. Conjunctions connect the cases of nouns and the 
moods and tenses of verbs : as, '• I taught John and James.'' " If 
thou desirest and pursuest virtue." 



SYNTAX. 127 

1. The old rule that conjunctions connect the like cases of nouns and 
modes and tenses of verbs is liable to so many exceptions, that I have 
thought proper to vary it as above. They generally, connect the same 
cases of nouns. 

2. They connect different moods and tenses, when the agent and act are 
the same : as, " He does ill, but can do well " 

3. So when the agent is the same, and the acts similar; as, u He may 
come, but he shall not tarry." 

4. When the actions are neither the same, nor similar, whether the agent 
is the same, or not, the verbs must be of the same mood and tense, if the 
sense is conjunctive : as, u If thou bringest thy gift to the altar, and there 
rememberest that thy brother hath aught against thee, leave there thy gift, 
and go thou, and first reconcile thyself to thy brother, and then come and 
offer thy gift. 

5. But r if the agents and acts are different, different moods and tenses 
may be connected : as, " But he agreed that the defendent could not con- 
trovert the title; yet that he might give evidence to explain the holding 
under him." So also, if the sense is disjunctive, and the object of the first 
verb be the agent of the latter, and the agent of the first verb is the object 
of the latter, or a preposition : as, " Though he [should] slay me, yet will 
I trust in him." 

6. As to the connexion of sentences, the same general rule applies, as to 
the connexion of words, and members. When the sense is conjunctive, 
the sentiments should be the same, or similar. When disjunctive, dissim- 
ilar. 

7. When words are coupled by one. or more conjunction?, the first gov- 
erns, or is governed, or agrees and the others are coupled to it : as, "The 
Lord is holy, just and good" "Give me neither poverty, nor riches." 
" The little ants, for one poor grain, Labor and toil and strive." 

8. When any thing is affirmed, or denied, the indicative mood is always 
used. So, when a supposition is made, the truth of which is taken for 
granted, or to be selfevident: as, "Though he was divinely inspired, and 
was endowed with supernatural powers; yet he reasoned." 

9. When that and lest follow the imperative, they take the potential af- 
ter: as, "Let him, who standeth, take heed lest he [should] fall." And 
sometimes the indicative : as, " Take heed that thou speakest not to Jacob." 

10. When an hypothesis, or condition is expressed, the verb is in the in- 
dicative : as, "If he repents, he shall be forgiven." And sometimes in 
the potential: as, "Though he [should] sla} T me, yet will I trust in him." 

11. Pronouns are often hypothetical : as, " Whosoever he is, or may be " 
"Whatsoever he chooses, or may choose." " So as such be a freeholder." 

12. It has been generally supposed that certain conjunctions associated 
with verbs, in the indicative mood, change the verb into what has been 
called the subjunctive mood. In 11137 remarks upon the moods, I think I 
have clearly shewn that the English language never had such a mood, and 
never can have, unless a new form shall be given to the inflection of cur 
verbs, with a signification adapted to such a mood. And it should be no- 
ticed also that the same hypothetical conjunctions, which have been sup- 
posed to change verbs from the indicative to the subjunctive, are also used 
with the verbs, in the potential, and no person has ever supposed that the 
use of those conjunctions ever changed the potential to the subjunctive, 
which they might, with equal propriety. The simple fact, in all such ca- 
ses, is, that such conjunctions perform more or less an adverbial office upon 
the verbs associated with them. And, as I have remarked, in several in- 
stances already, it is not a novelty, in the language, which has sprung up 
lately, but a principle coeval with all languages that the parts of speech 
are continually performing the explanatory and qualifying offices, upon 
each other. And herein consists the greatest subtility, beauty, and orna- 
ment of all language. 



123 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

13. When an hypothesis is made, and a conclusion drawn, the hypothesis 
should be in the indicative, and the conclusion in the potential mood: as, 
44 Had lie [if he had] done this, he had [would have] escaped." I know 
that this has been one of the supposed forms of the subjunctive. But this 
location of the verb has no other effect, than the elegant omission of the 
conduction, if, or any other hypothetical word. And the conclusion 
should always, in such sentences, be in the potential, for the hypothesis, is 
reallj" in that part of the sentence. In all such cases, the supposition is a 
fast stated and the inference drawn is hypothetical, upon that fact : as, 
' 4 Had he done this, if he had done this, i. e. grant, or give the fact, he had 
done this. What then follows : the hypotesis, to wit, he would have es- 
caped." And it is perfectly plain that the potential mood is the proper 
mood to be used, because it is all the hypothetical, or conditional mood that 
we have.. The indicative is always positive, as its name indicates. See re- 
marks on the moods. I have been thus lengthy and particular, in these 
remarks, in order to do away the old error, which has been so long retained, 
in oar language, as to obtain a standing and consequence, without right, by 
mere possession, that we have a subjunctive mood. I can see no reason why, 
this mood ever got into the English, except by being let in on cousining 
principles, from the Latin and Greek, which have a peculiar form, in the 
inflections of the verbs, called subjunctive. 

14. Some conjunctions have their correspondents: as, 1. Though has 
yet, or nevertheless : as, " Though he was rich; yet, for our sakes, he be- 
came poor." 2. And has yet ; as, "And, though these things never exis- 
ted, and probably never will; yet we have as clear and distinct ideas of 
them," &e. 

15. In many cases, or and nor are used as synonymous: they never are : 
or is always conditional, and nor negative, and should always be so used, 
for, when properly used, they are not capable of use, in any other vt&y. 

18. But is sometimes improperly used for than, pronoun ■ as, u To trust 
him is no more, Imt (than) to acknowledge his power." u This is no other, 
but (than) the gate of Paradise." 

17. The nominative and objective cannot be coupled together: as, " She 
suffers hourly more, than ?.»i«" (I,) i.e. which I suffer. 

IS. In the following sen ence, whether is said to be misused for that: as, 
" We should sufficiently weigh the objects of our hopes, whether they are 
such, that we may expect, from them, what they propose." The whole 
difficulty here is, a whole clause, by elipsis, is omitted before wm hear: to 
wit, that we may ascertain ichcther they be such, that we, &c 

19. In. solemn and impressive sentences that is elegantly understood : as, 
CL See thou doest it not." u I beg you would come to me." 

20. Two conjunctions should not be used together, unless separable by a 
comma, and affect different parts of a sentence : as, " He was slain, and, 
though he fell, he avenged himself on his enemies." 

Rule 51. Conjunctions take the same cases after them, as the 
verbs, from which they are derived: as, "If that [give that fact] 
the king hath, any way, thy gocd deserts forget." 

1. If the original verb is active, the objective case follows, if neuter, the 
nominative." 

2. "They were all pardoned but [be out] one." 

3. " You may go an [grant that fact] you will." 

4. u He was admitted to his title and estate, else [dismiss that fact] he 
Would have raised a rebellion " 

5. u If I am right, thy grace impart, still [put or place that fact] in the 
right to stay." 

6. "I will trust in him, though [allow or grant the fact] he [should] slay 
mc" . 



SYNTAX. 129 

7. "I will sue you, vnlcss [dismiss or take aicay that fact] you pay me." 
Lest and else are only different spelling- of the same word. 

8. " Though he was divinely inspired, yet [get, or obtain that fact] ha 
reasoned." 

9. u You may have this apple or [choose which] that." 

10. I suppose all the conjunctions to be the derivatives of active verbs, 
for they all appear to take the objective after them. 

§ 9. OF INTERJECTIONS. 

Rule 52. Neuter interjections take the nominative after them: 
as, " O virtue, how amiable thou art ! " 

1. The following are the principal ones in use: O, pish, tush, sho, poh, 
foil, hem, ho, soho, fie, scat, hist. Other words are occasionally used, as 
interjections, which do not, in fact, belong to this class of words. 

2. All the interjections, which are used in salutation, are neuter and take 
the nominative after them. 

Rule 53. Active interjections, that is, such as express glad- 
ness, sorrow, lamentation and desire, take the objective after 
them: as, " Ah me. O the times. Alas me." 

1. These are the principal, herhaps all, active interjections, in use : Oh, 
ah, alas, aha. 

2. w Oh [me, I wish] that my head was waters." 

t; Oh [us] that with yonder sacred throng, 

We at his feet may fall." 

3. " Ah [him] he is undone." 

4. " Alas [me,] I fear for my life." 

5. "Aha! [me] I am warm." 

6. The interjections, which govern the objective case, are never used, in 
salutation. 

7. Prepositions are frequently used apparently as interjectiens, when, in 
fact, they are only the adjunct parts of verbs : as, "Out upon her," i.e. 
fly, run, &c. 

§ 10. OF WORDS PLACED ABSOLUTE. 

Rule 54. A noun joined with a participle is im the nominative 
absolute, when its case depends on no other word: as, "The 
general being slain, the army was routed." " Augustus reigning, 
Christ was born'" 

1. Nouns placed independent, by the use of participles, have no connex- 
ion with any other part of speech. 

Q, Participles associated with nouns independent, often govern the objec- 
tive : as, '*« The sun having dispersed the clouds, it grew warm. 

3. The nominative absolute, with, or without other words associated with 
it, is often in apposition to if, according to ob. 6, rule 3: as, " Affairs being 
thus circumstanced, it was advisable not to proceed/' R. 4, eb. 6. 

4. The noun, or pronoun, is often understood : as, " It is not possible to 
act otherwise, [we] considering the weakness of our nature." Webster's 
grammar, R. 38, p. Ib4. 

5. And sometimes the participle is used alone, the noun, with which it is 
associated being understood : as, " Moses said, let no man leave [any part] 
of it until the morning. Notwithstanding, they barkened not unto Moses." 

*6 



130 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

Rule 55. A participle associated with an adverb, is in the 
nominative absolute, when connected with no other word : as, 
tc Doctor Robinson's history is, generally speaking, exceedingly 
well written.' 5 

Rule 56. The infinitive, at the beginning of a sentence, is ab- 
solute, when not the nominative to another verb : as, "To con- 
fess the truth, I was in fault." See ob. 2, rule 41. 

1. Sentences of this kind have the latter clause, in apposition to the 
former, both meaning the same thing. 

2. The infinitive being absolute, alters not the verb, as to being active, 
or neuter. 

3. The infinitive absolute is a very neat,, concise, and elegant use of the 
verb. 

4. The infinitive absolute, or used as a nominative, stands in nature of a 
noun. 

5. Mr. Murrey, page 1£5, says, "the infinitive is often absolute, or used 
independently of the rest of the sentence, supplying the conjunction, that, 
with the subjunctive: " as, "to coniess the truth, I was in fault." 1 be- 
lieve I have already shewn that we have no subjunctive. II is reason given 
is, " the infinitive supplies the place of the conjunction that." His reason 
is conclusive proof that that is not a conjunction. For, by changing the 
phrase, we change the infinitive into a noun: as, " The confession of the 
truth is, I was in fault. This error shews how allied all errors are. Who- 
ever adopts one, must vouch others to prove it. For truth always disdains 
the servile otiice of being used as a tool to prove a falsehood. 

Rule 57. A noun emphatically used, in the beginning of a 
sentence, as a general term, may be absolute without a participle : 
for example see ob. 7, rule 7. 

]. Such nouns seem to be in apposition to the pronoun, in the latter 
member of the sentenoe, according to ob. 1, rule 3. 

Rule 58. The relative, as, is often in the objective absolute be- 
fore the infinitive : " The Roman calender, as established by Rom- 
ulus, and as corrected by Numa Pompilius, was a very imperfect 
division of the year, and introduced such confusion, as to require 
a thorough reform." As, in such cases, refers to the subject mat- 
ter. 

1. The relative as elegantly omits the auxiliary, which would be ex- 
pressed, if any other relative should be used, jn the above example, had 
Which been used, the auxiliary must have been used also : as, "ichich was 
established and which was corrected fyc. And this is probably the reason 
that as has, in so many cases, been erroneously called a conjunction and 
an adverb. 

Rule 59. What, when it represents the subject matter, is often 
in the objective absolute, before the infinitive: as, -"If you think 
best-to hive it, you must forward 830, with instructions, what to 
.do with it." 

Rule 60. The relative, than, is often absolute before the infin- 
itive : as, "Nothing makes a man more suspicious than to know 

little.' 5 



SYNTAX. J31 

1. Webster, grammar, page 177, says, " that for denoting cause, gov- 
erns the infinitive ; " as, u What went ye out for to see ? For always de- 
notes cause, and nothing eke. He admits tha.tfor has become obsolete, in 
such cases, but insists that it is pure English, idiom. All that can be said 
about it is that its use is a mere redundcncy. It adds nothing to tiie sense, 
when used, and when omitted it takes nothing away. The infinitive, in the 
above, and all like sentences is governed by the verb. 

§ 11. OF TIME, PLACE AND DISTANCE. 

Rule 61. Nouns signifying the time when, howlong, or the con- 
tinuance of time, are put in the objective, with, or without a pre" 
position: as, "Tie came yesterday. " "He lived four years a* 
college.'' "All the days of my appointed time will I wait, till my 
change shall come." 

1. Some suppose a preposition to be always understood, when net ex- 
pressed, and when it is, it should be noticed and used. 

k 

Rule 62. Nouns signifying the place where, are put in the ob- 
jective, with or without a preposition : as, "He is gone home. 5 ' 
" He is in town." 

Rule 63. Nouns signifying the distance of one place from 
another are put in the objective, with or without a preposition : as, 
" Brimfield is seventy miles from Boston." 

Rule 64. Nouns signifying height, depth, length, breadth, and 
t/uckness, are put in the nominative: as, "'The tree is a hundred 
feet high." " A well twenty feet deep." "Aline forty fathom 
lom r ." "The board is two feet wide." "A plank two inches 
thick." "A loo* a foot through, or over." 

§ 12. OF POSITIVES AND NEGATIVES. 

Rule 65. Two or more negatives used together make the nep*- 

too o 

alive stronger : as, "He will not do it never." 

The contrary of this rule has been, in all grammars, which I have seen. 
The use which the common people make of words, when they use them 
understanding!}', is the best standard of their meaning. And, so far as I 
have remarked the use of negatives, by them, it has uniformly been to add 
to and strengthen the negative meaning. Take this sentence, which is con- 
stantly in use among the common people, and I think it will prove the case 
fully: as, l< I wiJl-not do it never." I venture to say that this double neg- 
ative is never used to signify that the speaker intended ever to do it. And 
I believe it to be so, in the use of double negatives, in every case where 
they are used. 

2. A positive associated with cne negative makes the negative stronger: 
as, " Fie shall not do it." 

3. Two positives associated with a negative, make the negative still strong- 
er : as, iL Verily, verily I say unio you, it shall not come to pass ! " 

4. Two positives used together make the positive stronger : as, "Verily, 
verily 1 say unto you, that heaven and earth shall pass away." 

5. Two, or more negatives coming together, separable by commas, all 
retain their negative office : as, " Of that day and that hour knoweth no 
man; no, net the angels, nor the Son; but the Father only." U I shall 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

never see him more; no, never, never, never " " If not worth that, it is not 
worth nothing." "He would not do nothing, never." 

6. " But our souls die and never, 
Never live again, 
Oh, never, never, never, 
Never live again." 

" Such as was not, from the beginning of the world, to this time, no, nor 
never shall be." 



CHAPTER IV. 

OF THE ELLIPSIS. 

The ellipsis, applied to grammar, is the elegant omission of some 
part, or parts of speech in a sentence. 

What is omitted, by the ellipsis, must be supplied, in parsing. 

The use of the ellipsis is to avoid the unnecessary repetition of words, in 
conveying our ideas, and make the language concise and perspicuous. 

Simple sentences are seldom elliptical; but all complex sentences are 
more or less. 

§ I. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE ARTICLE. 

In solemn and emphatical discourse, the article should be expressed with 
the different words, which are coupled ; but in familiar discourse, it should 
be understood: as, "But of that day and that hour, knoweth no man; no, 
not the angels, who are in heaven, neither the son, but the father only." 
" The men, women and children, together with the castle, houses and barns 
were all destroyed." 

§ 2. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE NOUN. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the noun, as to the ellipsis of the 
article : as, "Christ, the wisdom of God and the power of God.' 1 "A kind, 
tender and affectionate husband." 

§ 3. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE PRONOUN. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the pronoun, as to the ellipsis of 
the article : as, " He went, lie met the foe, he Fell." " O, outsend thy light 
and thy truth." ll My house and tenements to Ned." u My father and 
mother, my sisters and brothers were there." 

§ 4. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the adjective, as to the ellipsis of 
the article : as, "Washington was a great statesman and general." " Cic- 
ero was a great philosopher and a great orator." 

When adjectives of different significations are used with the same, or dif- 
ferent nouns, they must all be expressed : as, " Washington was a prudent 
and wise general." '" Lord Chatham was an accomplished gentleman, an 
eloquent orator, a great statesman and a good citizen." 

Numerical adjectives of different numbers should always be expressed: 
as, "Two men and one woman were there." 

Note. — Participles come under the same general rule as adjectives. Of 
the gerund no elip<* ; ° : ~ 



SYNTAX. 133 

§ 5. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE VERB. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the verb, as to the ellipsis of the 
article. But the same verb is seldom, if ever, repeated: as, " The ox 
knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib." 

But when different acts are expressed, the verbs always are : as, " The 
little ants, for one poor grain, labor and toil and strive." 

When two or more verbs in the infinitive are coupled, the sign to should 
be omitted after the first, except the sense is emphatical: as, u To fear and 
love God, is man's duty." " Give us, Lord, to know thy will, to keep thy 
laws, and to reverence thy holy name." 

§ 6. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE ADVERB. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the adverb, as to the ellipsis of the 
article : as, " He teaches his scholars to spell, read and w r rlte correctly." 

The' same adverb is seldom ever repeated. 

When different qualities are intended, the different adverbs must be ex- 
pressed: as, u He behaves gracefully, writes elegantly and speaks cor- 
rectly." 

§ 7. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE CONJUNCTION. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the conjunction, as to the ellipsis 
of the article: as, " For I am persuaded, that neither death, nor life, nor 
angels, nor principalities, nor powers, nor things present, nor things to 
come, nor height, nor depth, nor any other creature shall be able to separate 
us from the love of God." "The little ants for one poor grain, labor and 
toil and strive. *' " God is to be loved for his truth, goodness and mercy." 

Corresponding conjunctions and other corresponding terms should al- 
ways be expressed. 

§ 8. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE PREPOSITION. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the preposition, as to the article : 
as, " He w r as born not of the will of the flesh, nor of the will of man ; but 
of the will of God." " To finish his education, he made a tour through 
France, Italy and Germany." " 1 am weary of life and its cares." 

§ 9. OF THE ELLIPSIS OF THE INTERJECTION. 

The same rule applies to the ellipsis of the interjection, as to the ellipsis 
of the article : as, " He said hall master, and kissed him." " O Lord -thou 
knowest." " And Thomas said, my Lord and my God." " Rabbi." 
" Good master." "Yes sir." 



The reason that familiar and sprightly discourse should be as elliptical as 
possible, and retain the sense clear and distinct, is, that the ideas and ima- 
ges are always livcty, and the quicker they are associated the more pleasing, 
if the idea be not obscured. For it is always painful to see real life and 
activity oppressed or hindered. 

On the other hand in grave, solemn and emphatical discourse, the idea3 
are solemn and dignified, and the imagery noble and majestic. The lan- 
guage, therefore, should be correspondent to the subject, that the mind may 
have proper time to see, contemplate, and admire the grace and grandeur 
of the objects. For it is more painful to delicate sentiments to see things, 
in themselves solemn and great, treated with levity and neglect, than to see 
trivial things treated with more attention than they demand, as the one 
comes from an overniceness of opinion, the other, from want of principle. 
See Alex. 87. 



part iy; 

PROSODY. 



CHAPTER I. 

OF THE GENERAL NATURE AND USE OF PROSODY. 

Prosody teaches lightly to accent syllables, to divide them into long and 
short, rightly to pronounce words, to divide them into emphatical and un- 
emphatical, and to measure them by a proper number and quantity. 

Prosody is divided into PKONUNCiaTicN and versification. 

CHAPTER II. 



Pronunciation consists of accent, quantity, emphasis, pause, tone, 
and punctuation. 

§ 1. of accent. 

Accent is a peculiar stress of the voice, laid on a certain letter of a sylla- 
ble, or a certain syllable of a word, to distinguish it from others. 

As, in the word bait, the accent falls on the letter t ; and in presume, on v. 
Thus we have two accents, grave and acute. ,The grave is used over long 
syllables, and the acute, over short. 

I. OF ACCENT GENERALLY 

1. As syllables are formed of one, or more letters, it is necessary to have 
some particular mark, by which to distinguish them from each other; othe- 
wise, we should have nothing but an unmeaning succession of letters, or 
characters. 

2. And as words are formed of a different number of syllables, from one 
to about nine, it is necessary to have some peculiar mark to distinguish syl- 
lables from one another, in forming them into words; otherwise speech 
would be a succession of syllables only, without conveying ideas. For, as . 
words are only signs of ideas, any confusion, in them confuses the ideas, 
of course. It is, therefore, necessary to have some rules, whereby to sep- 
erate one, or more syllables, into one word, that the mind may know what 
particular syllable, or syllables, belongs to each word in utterance. 

3. In speaking, this might be done, by a perceptible pause, at the end of 
each word, as we leave a certain space, between words, in writing and print- 
ing. This, though it might render words distinct, would make discourse 
tedious, and sentences confused, which would, so far destroy the great end 



PROSODY 135 

and design of speech. They might also be distinguished, by a certain de- 
pression, or elevation of the voice, upon one syllable of each word, which 
has been practised in some languages. But that method, which is most 
concise, and communicative, and best accords with the feelings of nature, 
is undoubtedly the best. The English language has, therefore, for this pur- 
pose, adopted ascent. 

4. Every syllable, therefore, in our language, of more than one* letter, 
has one of them distinguished by accent. And every word, of more than 
one* syllable, has one of them distinguished, by the same mark. If the 
syllable be long, the accent is on the vowel, if short, on the consonant. 

"Words of one syllable or letter, are always accented. 

5. Accent is either principal or secondary. The principal* accent is that, 
which necessarily distinguishes one syllable in a word, from the others. 
The secondary* accent is that, which we occasionally place on another syl- 
lable, besides that, which has the principal accent so, as to pronounce every 
part of the word more distinctly, forcibly and harmoniously: as, " Com- 
plaisant, caravan, violin." So of " Repartee, referee, privateer, committee, 
domineer," &c. But, though an accent be allowed on the first syllable of 
these words, it is, by no means necessary. 

*This is what some call the whole and half accent. See Noah Webster's 
spelling book. 

6. Accent therefore, outpoints the signiflcantest letter, in a syllable, and 
the signiricantest syllable, in a word. And, where other reasons forbid not, 
the accent should always be on the part of the word, which, from its impor- 
tance, deserves greatest observation. This is necessarily the root or body, 
of the word. Those of Saxon origin leave the radical part of the word, in 
this respect, in quiet possession of what seems its lawful propert}^ But 
words of Latin and Greek origin, of which our language is full, assume the 
right, according to the custom of those languages, of bestowing the accent 
on, or near the termination. And in general, words, adopted from other 
lanomao-es, brino* the custom of those languao-es, as to accent, with them. 

D O / C DC/ ' 

7. Accent, therefore, seems generally to be regulated by etymology, i. e. 
W 7 ords of Saxon origin, generally have the accent on the root; those from 
the learned languages, on the termination. 

8. If to these we add the accents, which we lay to distinguish them from 
one another, viz : as verbs from nouns, we have three general principles of 
accentuation : viz : the radical, the tcrminational , and the dlsilncttonal. 
The radical: as, " Love, lovely, loveliness." The tcrminational: as, 
u Dictate, dictatoral." The distinctlonal : as, " Convert, convert." 

II. OF ACCENT ON LETTERS AND MONOSYLLABLES. 

1. We have before noticed that monosyllables always have an accent. 
And if the syllable be long, the accent is on the vowel, if short, on the 
consonant. 

2. It only remains, therefore, to observe, on this head, that all monosyl- 
lables, of one letter are long, and, in monosyllables, of more than one letter, 
when the accent is on a consonant, that that consonant always follows the 
vowel: as, u Hat,it, in, on, up, hill, run, rum. 

III. OF ACCENT ON DISSYLLABLES. 

1. As monosyllables have always an accent, so dissyllable words have al- 
ways one of the syllables accented, to distinguish them from the other syl- 
lables. 

2. Dissyllables, formed by adding a termination, generally retain the ac- 
cent on the radical syllable: as, "Childish, kingdom, actest, acted, toil- 
some, lover, scoffer, fairer, foremost, zealous, fulness, meekly, artist." So 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

do those formed by prefixing a syllable : as, " Remind, forgive, ingraft, 
mistake, besmear, unman." % 

3. Dissyllables, which are nouns or verbs aecordieg to their meaning, in 
a sentence, generally have the accent, on the former syllable, when nouns, 
and on the latter , when verbs: as, "A cement, a contract, a presage ; I 
contract, cement, presage." 

This rule has many exceptions. Though verbs seldom have the accent 
on the former, yet nouns often have on the latter : as, Delight. Those 
nouns, which in the common order of language, must have preceded the 
verbs, often transmit their accent to the verbs : as, The noun ivtiter must 
have preceded the verb water. And some, which must have preceded the 
nouns, transmit their accent to the nouns. Thus correspond must have 
preceded correspondent; pursue, pursuit; and presume, presumption. So 
we may conclude whenever verbs deviate from this rule, it is seldom by 
chance; but generally in words, where the superior law of accent prevails, 

4. Dissyllables ending in y, cr 3 us, ow, le, ish, c, or ch, tcr, age 1 en, et 
generally accent the former syllable : as, Carry, holy, labor, vicious, fac- 
tious, willow, wallow, battle, tattle, banish, lavish, cambric, public, butter, 
bitter, courage, salvage, fasten, given, quiet, diet Except where the to is 
sounded, allow, avow,, bestow. 

5. Dissyllable nouns, ending in le arid er, accent the former syllable: as, 
Maple, apple, canker, cancer. 

6. Dissyllable verbs, ending in one or two consonants, or c final, prece- 
ded by a vowel, or a diphthong, accent the latter syllable : as, " Comprise, 
escape, appease, reveal, attend." 

7. Dissyllables, having a diphthong, in the latter syllable have the accent, 
there ; as, Applause, because. Exceptions, Certain, curtain, valley, bar- 
ley, &c. 

8. When both syllables are diphthongs, the accent falls on the first: as, 
Fountain, mountain. 

9. When two vowels come together, one of which is joined to the former 
and one to the latter syllable, the accent falls on the first: as, Lion, riot, 
ruin. Except create. 

10. But if a diphthong make the former syllable, the accent always falls 
there: as, quiet. 

IV. OF ACCENT ON TKISSYLLAELES. 

1. Trissyliables formed by adding a termination, or prefixing a syllable, 
have the accent on the radical word; as, Loveliness, hermitage, tenderness, 
contemner, phy'sical, bespatter, empower,' commanding, commended, as- 
surance. 

2. Those ending in us, al, ion, sometimes accent the first and sometimes 
the second syllable : as, A'rduous, capital, salvation, fruition, rehearsal, 
proposal. 

3. Those ending in ce, ant, enl, ate, accent the first syllable : as, Counte 
nance, continence, reverence, elegant, armament, imminent, propagate. 
Exceptions; Contrivance, immerse nfent, aggravate. Such are generally 
derived from words having the accent on the last syllable; unless the sec- 
ond syllable has a vowel before two consonants : as, Subsequent, promul- 
gate. 

4. Trissyliables, ending in y, are generally all short, and accent the first: 
as,_E'ntity, specify, liberty, victory, subsidy. 

5. Those ending in le, or re, accent the first syllable, unless it is a prepo- 
sition : as, Legible, theatre, example, epistle. 

6. Those ending in ude, accent the first syllable : as, Plenitude, habitude, 
rectitude, longitude. 

7. Some ending in ator, have the accent on the first, others, on the sec 
ond syllable: as, "Spectator, creator; orator, senator, barrator, legator. 



PROSODY. 137 

8. When the middle syllable is a diphthong-, or a vowel before two con- 
sonants, the accent is there : as, Endeavor, domestic. 

9. Tiiose, having the accent on the "animate, are generally of French 
origin; as, Acquiesce, repartee, magazine, referee, bombardier. Or they 
are formed, by prefixing prepositions: as, Immature overtake, undersell, 
superadd. 

*The ultimate is Wie. last, the penultimate the last but one, the aiitipen- 
ultimate the last syllable but two. 

V. OF ACCENT ON POLYS Y LL AEL E S . 

1. Polysyllables follow the accent of the words, from which they are de- 
rived: as, Abrogating, continency, incontinently, commendable commu- 
nic ability. 

2. Those ending in alor, generally have the accent on the penultimate: 
as, Ernencator, gladiatGr, equivecator, prevericator. 

3. Those ending in le, have the accent on the first syllable, unless the 
second syllable lias a vowel before two consonants: as, A'micable, despica- 
ble, seryieable; combustible, commendable, condcmnable, penultimate, an- 
tepenultimate. 

4. Those, ending in ia i io, cat, us, iij, have the accent on the antepenult- 
imate: as, u Urorious, activity, cyclopedia, punctilio, despotical. 

5. Those, ending in ion have the accent on the penultimate : as, Circum- 
locution, resurrection, confiscation. 

G. The foregoing are laid down, as general rules; but the scholar will 
notice, that they all have their exceptions. They contain, however, the 
leading principles of good accentuation. Their variations and enlaro-ments, 
the scholar must supply from his ingenuity, and the genius of the language. 
The limits of an elementary treatise will not permit us to go minutely into 
the subject. In the English, as in other languages, the accent must depend 
very much, on tne genius of composition, and the authority of custom. 

7. Though the syllable, on which the principal accent is placed, is gen- 
erally fixed and certain ; yet we frequently make the principal, secondary, 
and the secondary principal. Thus, Caravan, complaisant, vioiin, domi- 
neer, may have the greater stress on the first, and the less on the last syl- • 
lable, Without any offence to the ear. And, if no accent be placed on the 
last, no discord ensues. But to place the accent on the second syllable 
would be unnatural, harsh and dissonant. 

8. But, after all, in pcetic composition, all rules must yelld to harmony 
and measure. 

§ 2. OF QUANTITY. 

The quantity of a syllable, is that time which is occupied in its* pronun- 
ciation. This is what distinguishes syllables into Long and Short. 

1. When the accent falls en the vowel, the syllable is always long, and 
the vowel should be slowly joined with the following letter, or letters, in 
pronunciation : as, Fall, fate, note, mood, house, feature. See art. 2, p. 236. 

2. When the accent is on the consonant, the syllable is always short, and 
the letters, in such syllable should be quickly joined in pronunciation : as, 
Mat, not, It, bottle, butter. 

3. In elegant and good pronunciation, a long syllable is considered to oc- 
cupy twice the time of a short syllable : as, Mate, note; mat, not. 

4. As to syllables being long, or short, when accented or unaccented, 
we have no rule to give other, than those before given. For, as laying the 
accent on a syllable, does not lengthen it, unless the accent fall on the 
vowel; so neither does the taking the accent from a syllable, shorten it, 
unless it fall on a vowel, so near, as to render two long syllables disagreea- 
ble and unpleasant. 

5. When the accent is on the consonant, the syllable is more or less short, 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

as it ends with a single or double, or two or more consonants: as, This, 
bliss, send, match. 

6. When the accent is on a semivowel, the time may be a little protract- 
ed, by dwelling on the semivowel ; as, Cur', can'; him', hill'; but if on a 
mute, it cannot : as, Cap, comment, cat, dab. 

7. Ail vowels under the principal accent before the terminations ttfc<, io t 
ion, preceded by a single consonant, are long : as, Regalia, folio, adhesion, 
explosion, confasion ; except i, as, militia, punctilio, decision, contrition ; 
and a, and e, and o, in a few words : as, discretion, battaliion. 

8. All vowels immediately preceeding the terminations ety, and ity, are 
long: as, piety, Deity. But if one or more consonants precede these ter- 
minations, all preceding vowels are short, except u : as, Scarcity, rarity, 
polarity, severity, divinity, curiosity, impunity. And u before two conso- 
nants is short: as, Curvity, taciturnity. 

9. Syllables, under the principal accent, before the terminations fe, or ick, 
and ical, preceded by one or more consonants, are ahort, except u: as, Sa- 
tanic, pathetic, elliptic, harmonic, fanatical, poetical, levitical, canonical; 
tunic, cubic, music, cubical, musical. 

10. Vowels in the antepenultimate syllables of words, with the following 
terminations, are always short : as, loquy, in obloquy; quity hi obliquity; 
strophe, in apostrophe; meter, in barometer; goncd, in diagonal; vorous, in 
carnivorous ; feroizs, in somniferous; fluous, in superfluous ; fluent, in mel- 
ifrluent; parous, in oviparous; cracy, in aristocracy ; gony, in cosmogony; 
phony, in synlphony ; nomy, in astronomy; tomy, in anatomy; pat}iy, in 
sympathy; ity, in activity. See the vowels. 

11. As no speech is agreeable, without a due proportion, or quantity, and, 
as that very much depends on laying the accent, every one, who would at- 
tain a just and pleasing delivery, should study to be master of that grace, 

. 

§ 3. OF EMPH&SIS. 

Emphasis is a particular tone, or stress of the voice, laid on some import- 
ant word, or words in a sentence, to distinguish them, from the others, and 
shew how they affect the rest of the sentence. 

1. As accent outpoints the importantest letter of a syllable, or syllable of 
a word: so emphasis designates the noblest word, or words in a sentence, 
and presents it in a stronger light to the understanding* Without accent, 
words would be resolved into their original syllables, and syllables, into 
their original letters : and, without emphasis, sentences would be resolved 
into their original words; and the hearer left to the painful alternative, 
either first to find out the syllables and words, form them into sentences, 
and afterwards gather their meaning, or lose all profit and edification from 
discourse. 

2. On the right management of accent and emphasis, depend the life of 
pronunciation. Without emphasis, not only is discourse tedious and heavy; 
but the meaning often left ambiguous. If the emphasis be placed wrong, 
we wholly pervert and confound the meaning of words. The following 
short question is capable of four different emphases, and of the same num- 
ber of distinct answers. "Do you ride to town to day ? " as, 1 . " Do you 
ride to town to day ? " No, /shall send my servant. 2. " Do you ride to 
town to day ? " No, 1 shall walk. 3. " Do you ride to town to day ? " JYb, 
I shall ride ]nto the country. 4. " Do you ride to town to day? " No, but 
I shall tomorrow 

3. Tn solemn discourse, the whole force and beauty of expression de- 
pends on the accent and emphasis. For we convey quite different senti- 
ments, from the same words, by placing the emphasis differently: as, in the 
following: "Judas, betrayest thou the son of man with a kiss?" "Be- 
trayest thou," Sec, turns the reproach on the infamy of the treachery. 
"Betrayest thou," &c, turns it on Judas. "Betrayest thou the son of 



PROSODY. . 130 

man?'' turns the reproach on the exceeding infamy of the treachery, as 
i applied to so eminent and sacred a person. " Betrayest thou the son of 
man, with a kiss? " turns the reproach on the prostitution of the signal of 
peace and friendship, to that of destruction. 

4. Interrogatives are always more or less emphatical; but when a pecu- 
liar emphasis falls on them, they should be uttered with great force and 
emphasis: as, " Who said so? " " When will he come?" " What shall I 
do?" " W/ii:hcr shall I go? " iC Why weepest thou ? " 

5. Words, standing in apposition are emphatical : as. " Ke is the tyrant, 
not the father of his people." " His subjects fear him ; but love him not." 

6. Some sentences are so solemn and dignified, that every word is, in 
some measure, emphatical: as, " Ye hills and dales, ye rivers, woods, and 
plains." Perhaps none more so, than this interrogative exclamation of 
Ezekiel. "Why will ye die." In such emphatical sentences, it is a very 
nice thing to determine, on which word to lay the main emphasis accord- 
ingly as we wish to toach a different tone, in the scale of human passions, 
for every variation carries with it, -its corresponding sentiment and emotion. 

7. As accent is of two kinds, principal and secondary; so is emphasis 
simple and complex. Simple,, when it only outpoints the plain meaning of 
a proposition : Complex, when besides designating the meaning, it marks 
also some affection, or emotion of the mind; or gives a force and meaning 
to words, they have not in their usual acceptation. When simple, emphasis 
has very little change, or addition of tone : when complex, a strong and 
manifest tone is always superadded. The following is an exa?nple of sim- 
ple emphasis: as, u And Nathan said unto David, thou art the man." But 
in the following sentence, we perceive a great and manifest emotion of the 
speaker superadded to the meaning: as, " Why will ye die ! " 

8" As emphasis often fails on words, in different parts of the same sen- 
tence, it is often required to.be continued, en two or more words, when the 
ideas are cumulative: as, "If you would make one rich, study not to in- 
crease his stores; but to diminish his desires." 

9. Emphasis may be further distinguished into weaker and stronger: as 
"Exercise and temperance strengthen the constitution. Here the emphasis 
is weak. "Exercise and temperance strengthen even an indifferent consti- 
tution." Plere the weaker is on the verb and the stronger on the adjective. 

10. Though every sentence has one, or more words, more or less em- 
phatical; yet the emphasis must correspond to the nature of the sentence. 
In lively familiar, and facetious discourse, the emphasis is proportionably 
light and easy. In solemn and pathetic discourse, it must be proportionably 
stronger. And after all, it must be left altogether to the skill and judgment 
of the speaker, and. if his own feelings do not dictate a proper emphasis, it 
will be in vain to think of confining him to rules, which lie can neither 
feel, nor know. 

11. Emphasis, besides its other offices, is the great regulator of quantity. 
For, though the quantity of our syllables, in words separately pronounced, 
is fixed, it is mutable, when these words are arranged in sentences. Syl- 
lables then shift from long to short, and from short to long, according to 
their different arrangment, and the consequent variation, in the importance 
of their meaning. A few examples will illustrate this point. 

" Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and learn the secret pow'r." 
" Pleas'd thou shalt hear — and thou alone shalt hear " 
" Pleas'd thou shalt hear — in spite of them shalt hear." 
" Pleas'd thou shalt hear — though not behold the the fair." 

IS. In the first instance pleased and hear are equally long and emphatical, 
and learn the corresponding term, whilst thou and shalt, as the sense re- 
quires, are reduced to a short quantity. In the second instance, thou is the 
emphatical term; and what it obtains, in quantity, from emphasis, is com- 
pensated by a dimunition of quantity in pleased and hear, shalt still remains 



140 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

short; and alone is the correspondent emphatical term. In the third in- 
stance, ska-It, from emphasis, obtains a long quantity. And though its sound 
cannot be prolonged, as it ends with a pure mute, in this, as in similar 
instances, the additional quantity is supplied by a rest of the voice propor- 
tionate to the importance of the word, in the other member, them is the 
corresponding emphatical term. In the fourth instance hear has, from em- 
phasis, a long quantity; and thou and shalt are reduced to short quantities, 
wfaile pleas' d lends some of its own importance to the more important word 
hear. In the other clause, behold is the corresponding emphatical term. 

13. Thus it is evident, that the quantity of cur syllables is not fixed, but 
governd by emphasis. To observe a due mensuration on all occasions, is 
undoubtedly very difficult. But by instruction, care, and practice, the dif- 
ficulty may be overcome. 

14. Emphasis not only changes the quantity of words and syllables, but, 
in particular cases, the seat of the accent : as, "He shall increase; but I 
shall decrease." U A difference is between giving and forgiving" For 
the first syllable of a word formed of a preposition, has no accent, only from 
emphasis. u In this species of composition, plausibility is much more es- 
sential than probability." 

15. The great and only rule of emphasis is, That the speaker study to 
attain a just conception and feeling of the force and, spirit of the sentiments, 
keuttcrs For, to lay the emphasis, with exact propriety, is a constant ex- 
ercise of good judgment and attention. It is the greatest evidence of good 
taste, and arises from feeling delicately ourselves, and judging accurately 
what is fittest to move the feelings of others. 

16. Against one error, it is proper to caution the student, viz. that of mul- 
tiplying emphatical words A prudent and proper use of them, alone gives 
them any force. If they occur too often, like other excellencies, they lose 
their effect, their dignity and importance. For the music of language i3 
like all other, it only charms, by its arrangment, aptness and variety. 

§ 4. OF PAUSE. 

Pause, in speaking, and reading, is a suspension or cessation of the voice, 
fcr a certain perceptible, or measurable space of time. 

J. Pauses are of two kinds, sentimental, and periodical, or final. 

I The sentimental pauses comprise all those various suspensions of the 
voice, whether suppressions, or elevations, which do not mark the close of 
a sentence. 

II. The periodical, or final pauses, are those suspensions, or cessations of 
the voice, proper at the end of a sentence, or close of a single or complex 
idea. 

The periodical pause is divisible into cadcntial and elcratory. 

The cadential pause is used, when we close a period with a proper and 
natural cadence, or falling of the voice. Sentences of this kind are plain, 
explanatoiy, or didactic, having no emotion or passion superadded to the 
sense. 

Elevatory pauses are those proper at the end of sentiments or periods, 
which have some peculiar emotion or passion, superadded to be distinguish- 
ed by some peculiar modulation of the voice. The proper management of 
these pauses, like emphasis, must be left to the taste, feeling and judgment 
of the speaker. 

1. Frequent pauses are necessary, both for the speaker and hearer. To 
the speaker, that he may get some temporary rest and relief to the organs 
of speech, to enable him to proceed, in delivery. For the hearer, to relieve 
the ear from fatigue, and give the understanding time to distinguish the 
sentences and their members, and weigh the sense. 

2. In all reading and speaking, great care is necessary to acquire a proper 
management of the breath, so as not to separate words, which are perfectly 



PROSODY, 141 

Connected in sense. Many speakers, for want of this management, miser- 
ably mangle sentences so, that the force of emphasis is entirely lost, or 
none can be laid. It is a great mistake to imagine that the breath must 
only be drawn, at the end of a period. It may easily and properly be gath- 
ered, at the intervals, when the voice is only suspended. By this manage 
ment, a sufficient stock may always be acquired, for oncarrying the v longest 
sentence, without any improper interruptions. 

3. It will be proper, however, to observe one general rule : That the same 
sentiment, a clause of a sentence] and a simple sentence, should each be pro- 
nounced, with one breath. 

4. Pauses in reading and speaking, should be modeled after those, we use 
in proper, common conversation ; not by any formal observance of the ar- 
tificial marks used in punctuation. Their primary use is to designate the 
grammatical construction ; and it is only a secondary object, that th?y reg- 
ulate the punctuation. 

5. To render pauses pleasing and expressive, they must rot only be made 
in the right places, and of a proper length, but must also be accompanied 
with proper tones, or modulations of the voice, by which the nature and 
sentiment of the sentence may be intimated. 

6. The closing pause must not be confounded, with that fill of voice, or 
cadence, with which, some readers uniformly finish a sentence. Nothing 
is more destructive of propriety and energy, than this habit. The tones 
and inflections of the voice, between the members, and at the end of a sen- 
tence, should be diversified according to the general nature of the discourse, 
and the peculiar construction and meaning of the sentence. In plain nar- 
rative, and especially in argu nentation, a strict attention to the manner, in 
which we relate facts or maintain an argument, in conversation, will shew 
that it is frequently properer to raise, than lower the voice, at the end of a 
sentence. 

7. In some sentences, th ' last word requires the principal emphasis; in 
others, a soft and gentle sound. Where nothing is in the sense, requiring 
the last sound to be elevated, nor emphatical, an easy fall of voice, showing, 
that the sense is finished, is proper. And in pathetic pieces, especially of 
the plaintive, tender, or solemn, the tone of the passion requires a still low- 
er cadence. 

8. The best method of correcting a monct my, in cadence, is frequently 
to read select sentences, in which the style is pointed and varied, abounding 
in antitheses, and vehement accusation, or soft and plaintive persuasion; 
and argumentative pieces, full of interrogatives and earnest exclamation. 

§ 5. OF TO>~E. 

Tone is a certain expressive modulation and inflection of the voice, in 
speech. 

1. We have before observed, that accent afreets letters and syllables; that 
quantity affects syllables, as to their length; that emphasis affects words; 
that pause affects the close of sentences and their members. With each of 
these, tone is more or less, intimately connected. It is a certain modula- 
tion, which accompanies the voice, in the various managements of all the 
parts of good elocution, and which makes discourse, at once, pleasing or 
disagreeable. This part of good utterance lies more in nature, and less 
within the reach of art, than any of the others. For a person may be mas- 
ter of accent, quantity, emphasis and pause, and still bo so unfortunate in 
the natural tone of voice, as never to be a pleasing or agreeable speaker. 

2. But then, the scholar must not mistake those embarrassments, which 
are the works of nature, for those of art. 

3. To shew the use and necessity of tones, we need only observe, that 
the mind, in communicating its ideas, is in a continual state of aclivitv, 
emotion or agitation, according to the different effect, those ideas produce. 
And the design of communication being not merely to express our ideas ; 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

but also the various feelings they excite, other signs, than words, are neces- 
sary to manifest these feelings. For words, uttered in a monotonous man- 
ner, represent only a simple state of mind, free from activity and emotion, 

4. As the communication of these internal feelings is of more importance, 
in our social intercourse, than the mere convej^ance of ideas, the Author of 
our being has not, in that, as in language, left the invention to man ; but 
has stamped it upon his nature, with his own hand, in the same manner, he 
has, on all the other animal creation. And whether man, or brute, nature 
has a language called TONE, which all understand. 

5. Ours indeed, from- the superior rank, we hold, are much more com- 
prehensive. And we have not an act of the mind, an exertion of the fancy, 
or emotion of the heart, which has not its peculiar concomitant tone or note 
of the voice, suited exactly to the. degree of internal feeling. In the proper 
use of these, the life, sp ;rit, beauty, and harmony of delivery cheifly consist. 

6. To illustrate more fully what has been said, we will quote David's 
beautiful lamentation over Saul and Jonathan. u The beauty of Israel is 
slain upon thy High places : How are the mighty fallen ! Tell it not in 
Gath ; publish it not in the streets Ashkelon : lest the daughters of the 
Philistines rejoice ; lest the daughters of the uncircumcised triumph. Ye 
mountains of Gilboa, let no rain, nor dew, be upon you, nor fields of offer- 
ing: for there the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away; the sheild of 
Saul, as though he had not been anointed with oil ! " The first of these 
divisions expresses sorrow and lamentation. The tone is therefore low. 
The next contains a spirited command, and should be pronounced much 
higher. When he makes a pathetic address to the mountains, Where hi3 
friends were slain, a tone quite different, from the former, is required ; not 
so low as the first, nor so high as the second ; but a manly, firm, yet plain- 
iite tone. 

7. This language of nature is not so difficult to attain, as many imagine. 
If we enter properly into the spirit and meaning of the words we utter, we 
shall not fail to deliver them in proper tones. For we find but few people, 
who speak without a provincial dialect, who have not an acute sense and 
use of emphasis, pause, and tone, in uttering their own sentiments, in earn- 
est discourse. And the reason they have not the same use of them, in 
reading aloud the sentiments of others, is the very defective and erroneous 
method, in which the art of reading is taught; whereby all the various, 
natural, expressive, sentimental tones of speech are suppressed, and a few 
artificial, unmeaning, reading notes substituted for them. 

8. But in reccommending, to readers, an attention to the tone and lan- 
guage of nature, it must be understood, with proper limitations. Modera- 
tion, in thi-, as in every other thing, is necessary, For when reading 
becomes strictly imitative, it assumes a theatrical manner, and is highly 
improper, as well as offensive to the hearers. 

§ 6. OF PUNCTUATION. 

Punctuation is the art of dividing sentences, into their proper grammati- 
cal parts. 

With regard to length or quantity, we have the four following characters 
of pauses ; viz, : The comma (,) the semicolon (;) the colon (:) the period(\) 
As to their relative proportion of quantity, or length of time, the comma 
is reckoned to have the quantity of one syllable of the composition, in 
which it is used ; the semicolon is reckoned to be double that of the comma ; 
the colon, double that of the semicolon; the period, double that of the 
colon. 

The precise quantity of duration of each pause, cannot be ascertained. 
For it is with them, as with the notes of music, they vary accordingly, as 
the composition is solemn, grave, familiar, sprightly, or facetious. But the 
relative proportion of the pauses should ever be the same. 



PROSGDY. 143 

1. OF THE COMMA. 

Rule 1, Simple sentences have their words so closety connected in sense, 
that they admit not of the use of the comma: as, " The fear of the Lord is 
the beginning of wisdom." " God is love." 

Note. — It has been holden, that in simple sentences, which are lonor, a 
comma may properly be placed before the verb. This is altogether an 
error, and originates from not properly distinguishing between a pause of 
quantity -and a pause of sense : as in the following sentence: u The good 
taste of the present age, has not allowed us to neglect the cultivation of the 
English language." The use of the comma between the nominative and 
verb, if admitted, may be used in one place, as well, as another : as, " Man, 
is of few days, and full of trouble." " I, am the man." No one will con- 
tend for the indiscriminate use of the comma, between the nominative and 
verb, and it is as proper in one case, as another, except in transposition. 

The pause of quantit}' and the pause of sense, cannot be better explain- 
ed, than by comparing them with the hold and rest, in music. For as the 
hold is only a dwelling upon the same sound and prolonging it ; so is the 
pause of quantity, rather a continuation, than a suspension of the voice. 
And, as the rest, in music, is an actual cessation of sound, for a certain 
time; so is the pause of sense an actual cessation of the voice, in speak- 
ing, for a certain time. And with regard to the pause of quantity, more or 
less of it is used, between the letters, in forming them into syllables, be- 
tween the syllables in forming them into words, and between words in 
forming them into simple sentences. 

It is also said, that an imperfect phrase should be separated from a simple 
sentence by commas. This also is incorrect. For whenever any detached 
phrase, however short, is introduced, it carries some explanatory, concomit- 
ant idea, with it, affecting the sentence, which at once, makes it compound. 
For it is immaterial whether that associated idea be noticed, in one or more 
words, if sufficiently noticed : as, "His work is, in many respects, imper- 
fect." " He is, therefore, not much approved." 

Rule 2. In general all nouns, having ihe same verb, all adjective terms, 
agreeing with the same noun, and all verbs, agreeing with the same nomi- 
native, are separated by commas : 

As, "The husband, wife, and children are gone." "Peter, or John, or 
James did it " " Washington was brave, wise, humane, and just." "She 
is a wheedlinor, deceiving creature." "The little ants, for one poor grain, 
labor and toil, and strive." 

Rale 3. Two or more infinitives should be separated by commas: 

As, "He learns to spell, to read, and to write.. 

Ru'e 4. "Words, and members of a sentence, placed in apposition, should 
be separated by commas: 

As, "Paul, the apostle, was an eminent preacher." 

"Tho 1 deep, yet clear: tho' gentle, yet not dull ; 
"Strong, without rage; without o'erflowing, full." 

But proper names, and words closely allied in sense, though in apposi- 
tion, 'should not be separated : as, " Marcus Tullius Cicero." "Libertines 
call religion bigotry or superstition." 

Rule 5. Words coupled by pairs, the pairs should be separated by com- 
mas : 

As, "A natural difference is between merit and demerit, virtue and vice, 
wisdom and folly." 

Rule 6 Participles, followed by nouns that depend on them, are separ- 
ated from the preceding noun by a comma : 



144 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

As, u The king 1 , approving the plan, put it in execution," i e. The king, 
he approving, fyc, 

Rule 7. When an address is made, the noun addressed should be separ- 
ated from the sentence, by commas: 

As, "My son, hear the counsel of thy father." "lam obliged to you, 
my friend." "Father, forgive them." 

Rule 8. Words placed absolute should be separated, from the sentence, 
by commas : 

As, "His father dying, he succeeded to the estate." " To confess the 
truth, I was in fault." " He is, generally speaking, well disposed " 

Rule 9. Adverbs, which qualify the same term, should be separated by 
commas : 

As, " We are fearfully, and wonderfully made." 

Rule 10. Adverbs, which are circumstantial, or explanatory, should be 
separated by commas, from the sentence. 

As, "He is, therefore, not approved'" "He is, nevertheless, pious." 

"He is, at once, the rogue and fool." 

Mule 11. Adverbs, which qualify, should not be separated by commas: 
As, " He is really a great man." "She is a very amiable woman." 

"The work is well done." 

Rule 12. A conjunction separated, by the member of a sentence, from the 
word it connects, should be included in commas : 

As, "They outset early, and, before night, arrived." "For, since you 
are unwilling, I will go." 

Rule 13. Words and phrases contrasted, or comparatively connected, 
should be separated by commas: 

As, "As is the father, so is the son." "As the hart panteth after the 
water brooks, so doth my soul pant after thee." "Better is a dinner of 
herbs, where love is, than a stalled ox and hatred therewith." "He is as 
great a man, as Alexander." " He is a man as great, as Alexander. 

Rule 14, Clauses of a sentence, having prepositions, which govern the 
same objective, should be seperated by commas : 

As, " Good men are often found, not only in union with, but in opposi- 
tion to, the view3 of one another." 

Rule 15. Pronouns should be separated from their antecedents, by com- 
mas : 

As, "Jehovah, who made the world, is eternal." "The Lord, he reigns 
on high" And if the relative and verb be understood, the rule is the same 
as, "This sentiment, habitual and strong, influenced his whole conduct." 

Rule 16. When the infinitive is the nominative to the verb am and 
placed after for elegance, it should not be separated by a comma: 

As, " The most obvious remedy is to withdraw from all association with 
bad men." 

Rule 17. Two or more verbs, governing the '.objective case, should be 
seperated by commas : 

As, " He loves, encourages and rewards virtue." 

Ru 7 e 18. When a verb is understood, the comma should generally be 
used : 

As, "From law arises security ; from security, curiosity ; from curiosity, 
knowledge." 



PROSODY, 145 

Rule 19. When words are coupled by a copulative conjunction, a com* 
ma should be used where the conjunction is understood ; and when the 
conjunction is expressed, if the pause be only a pause of quantity, the 
comma should not be used ; but if of sense, it should be used. 

Rule 20. Words coupled by disjunctives, should be seperated by commas. 

As, " He neither knows, nor loves, nor fears the Lord." "John, or 
Thomas, or James did it." " He is neither honest, just, good, faithfuf, nor 
kind." 

Rule2\. The simple members of compound sentences, and the simple 
parts of compound members of compound sentences, should be seperated 
by commas : 

As, " Good men are often found in this frail, imperfect state, not only in 
union with, but in opposition to, the views and conduct of one another." 
M The ox knoweth his owner, and the ass his master's crib ; but Israel doth 
not know, my people do not consider." 

2. OF THE SEMICOLON. 

Rule 22. The semicolon is used to divide the members of a compound 
sentence, between which a strong connexion exists, and when one is illus- 
trative of the other : 

As, "Religion requires us not to retreat entirely from worldly affairs, 
nor does it enjoin a great departure from them." 

The scholar will notice that, in the use of the semicolon, each mem- 
ber of the sentence, if placed by itself, would make a complete sentence, 
by only substituting the noun in the latter clause, or clauses, in room of the 
conjunction. 

Rule 23. When things are contrasted to give a greater force to the 
sense, the semicolon should be used: 

As, " Straws swim on the surface : but pearls lie at the bottom." 

Rule 24. When a proposition is made, in several distinct parts, and a 
conclusion drawn ; those parts should be seperated from each oilier by 

semicolons : 

As, a A divine legislator uttering his voice from heaven; an almighty 
governor outstretching his arm to reward and punish ; informing us of per- 
petual rest, prepared for the righteous, and punishment for the wicked : 
these are considerations, which overawe the world, support integrity, and 

check guilt." 

3. CF THE COLON. 

Rule 25. The colon should be used at the end of a sentence, complete in 
itself, but followed by some supplementary remark, or further illustration 

of the subject i 

As, " Nature felt her inability to extricate herself from the consequencei 
of guilt : the gospel reveals the plan of divine interposition and aid." 
" Nature confessed some atonoment to be necessary : the gospel discovers 
the necessary atonement made." 

Rule 26. When a proposition is made, in one, or more clauses and an 
inference drawn, a colon should be used between the proposition and in* 
ference : 

As, " The great aim of man is eternal happiness : religion outpoints a 
heaven to him." 

Rule 27. When an example, speech, or quotation is introduced, a colon 
should be used before it : 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR, 

As, "The scriptures give us an amiable representation of Deity, in these 
words : 4 God m love.' " "I heard him say : 4 I have done with the worid.' " 

4. OF THE PERIOD, 

Rule 28. The period is used at the close of all full sentences : 

As, " God is love." " Honor your parents." " If you would be respected, 
be virtuous." Other pauses are used sometimes improperly for the period: 
as, " The proceedings, at common law, were by writ out of chancery, com- 
manding the sheriff to cause the goods taken to be redelivered to the owner, 
Under this writ the sheriff might act judicially," <fcc. The word oioner 
closes here a full sentence. 

These are all the pauses, as to length or quantity, which we have, in our 
language. Some suppose we have only three : the comma, semicolon, and 
period. But nature seems to have settled this question. And if we con- 
sider how nearly allied these are to the four principal rests in music, we 
shall doubtless be satisfied of their propriety. 

For the period corresponds very naturally with the semibreve rest, that 
being a full bar in all moods of time ; the colon, with the minin ; the semi- 
colon, with the crotchet; the comma, with the quaver. 

5. OF THE OTHER CHARACTERS. 

These are, the Interrogation (?) the Exclamation (!) the Dash ( — ) the 
Parenthesis () the Brackets [] the Hyphen (-) the Apostrophe (') the Ca- 
ret (a) the Quotation (" ") the Index (O 3 ) the Paragraph (IT) the Section 
(§) the Star (•) the Obelisk (tj) the Parallel (||) the Accent ( M ) the mol- 

lient (,& ^J the Aspirate ( ) the Diaresis (•-) the Brace > 

t. The interrogation shows when a question is asked: as, "Who did 
this ? " 4t Where have you been ? " 

2. The exclamation is a mark of wonder, surprise, emotion, or passion ; 
As, " Bless the Lord; O my soul! and forget not all his benefits." 

44 W T hy will ye die ! O house of Israel { " " Oh the folly of sinners ! " 

It is remarkable how the same sentence, or clause may be altered, by 
changing it from an interrogative, to an exclamative, and vice versa: as, 

" What condescension ? *• 
u W 7 hat condescension ! " 

** How great was the sacrifice ? " 
" How great was the sacrifice !" 

The great distinction between interrogative and exclamatory sentences 
is this: In an interrogative sentence, an answer is always expected, and 
without it, the sense is incomplete. In an exclamatory sentence no question 
is, in reality, asked, nor any answer expected. 

3. The dash is used where the sense breaks off abrubtly : as, 

44 Here lies the great — false marble, where? 
44 Nothing but sordid dust lies hrre.' 4 

44 If thou art he, so much respected once — but, oh ! how fallen ! " 
As to the length of pause attached to these three characters, one general 
rule only can be given : that they have the duration of the comma, semi- 
colon, colon, and period, according as the sense, where they are used, 
requires. 

4. The parenthesis includes a part of a sentence not necessary to make 
sense, and should be read quicker and in a weaker tone of vo]ce : as, 

"While they wish to please, (and why should they not wish it?) they 



PROSODY. 147 

disdain dishonorable means." " It was represented by an analogy, (O, how 
inadequate!) which was borrowed," &c. 

5. The brackets include words, which are meant to explain something 
precedent, or rectify some mistake : as, 

"Being indebted to the s'd. A. in the sum of one dollar [according to the 
account annexed] in consideration thereof," &c. " H th civil law only is 
included [which is Mr. Selden's opinion] it is only a retaliation upon the 
clergy." 

These two last mentioned characters have, of late, by a fashionable neg- 
ligence, or ignorance, and even among those, who would be thought 
learned, become synonymous. But their uses are as perfectly distinct as 
their shape. The brackets are used to contain explanatory phrases, which 
have no grammatical connexion, with the sentence, and might as well be 
made a note, in the margin, or bottom, and is absolutely necessary to give 
a clear understanding of the composition. The parenthesis is something 
in nature of commas, except that the phrase is not necessary to the sen- 
tence; whereas a clause contained, by commas, is. I find that most of our 
newspaper editors use these characters indiscriminately. 

6 The hyphen is used to join syllables. 

This character should only be used in spelling, or separating syllables for 
gome important purpose. For when original simple words come together, 
which are compound in sense, they should not be^separated by a hyphen. 

7. The apostrophe shows when a word is contracted by omitting a sylla- 
ble, or letter, and the possessive case of nouns: as, 

"He o'erleapt the mark." ''Peter's cane." 

8. The caret shows where something is omitted through mistake: as, 

my # ,w 

u This is book." u He lives in ton." 

A A 

9. The quotation is used where one author adopts the words of another: 
as, 

And he said, ''Father forgive them." 

10. The index is used where we wish to have some passage particularly 
noticed. 

11. The paragraph is used to begin a new subject. This is little used 
except in sacred writ. 

J 2. The section is used to divide chapters, and sometimes as a note of 
reference. 

13. The star, obelisk, and parallel, together with the figures and letters, 
are used as notes of reference. 

14. The accent is used to designate the important letter of a syllable, or 
syllable of a word. 

It is a general principle .of the English, that e at the end of words, is 
silent. And so is es, except in some of the plural forms, which assume an 
additional syllable: as, Rickis, setitentds, boxes. The Latin and Greek, in 
particular, vary from ours, in this respect People, therefore, not acquaint- 
ed, with these languages, read those terminations according to our idiom, 
which mutilates the word: as, Demosthenes, they read Demosthens ; 

Thebes, Thebs; apostrophe, apostroph; 'Phtbe, Pheb ; epitome, epitom; 

Aristides, Aristtds. To prevent the unlearned from making these mistakes, 

f recommend to writers, invariably to place the accent over those termina- 
tions, in all v/ords, whether pure English words, or words adopted from 
other languages which will prevent ail such mistakes. Where the syllable 
is long, the grave accent should be used, where short, the acute. 

15. The mollient is used in softening, or taking off the asperity in sound, 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

of a consonant, and generally placed under the letter ment to be affected 
by it. Either of these characters is used under s, c, g, tk, and ch. 

1.6. The aspirate is used to render the sound of a consonant hard, or 
rough, to which it is attached, and is placed underneath the letter C, ch 
and g are affected by it. 

17. The di'aresis is used over a diphthong, to separate it into two sylla- 
bles. We are not yet sufficiently aware of the great utility and necessity 
of this character, in our language as we have no established rule as to vow- 
els, which come together. When two vowels come together, which make 
distinct syllables, the diaresis ought invariably to be used, and then the 
reader will know, from inspection, his quantity of syllables, without trouble 
and delay. 

18. The brace is used at the end of triplets, or three lines in poetry, hav- 
ing the same rhyme. It is also used to connect several words with one 
common term. 

6. OF THE USR.OF CAPITAL LETTERS 

1. The titles of books should be all in capitals. 

2. The first letter of every sentence should be a capital. 

3. All appellations of the Deity should begin with capitals: as, Holy" 
Spirit, Heavenly Bore, ^Imighty, Messiah, <&c. 

4. Proper names of persons, places and things should begin with capitals : 
as, George York, the Strand, the Allegany, Mississippi, Seahorse, &c. 

5. Adjectives, derived from proper names, should begin with capitals: 
as, English, Roman, Alp'ian, &c. 

6. Words of particular importance in a sentence should begin with capi- 
tals : as, The Reformation, the Restoration, the Revolution. 

7. The first word in a quotation, after a colon, or when an assertion, in 
nature of a quotation, is made after a comma or semicolon, should begin 
with a capital: as, "Remember this ancient maxim : " " Know, thyself: " 
"And Jesus said unto him," "Take up thy bed and walk." 

8. The first word in an example should begin with a capital. See the 
rules in syntax, &c. 

9. Every substantive and principal word in the titles of books should be- 
gin with a capital. 

10. The first word of every poetic line, should begin with a capital. 

11. The pronoun Zand interjection 0, should be capitals. 

12. And generally, all important words and subjects of discourse should 
begin with capitals. 

13. All abreviations and initial letters should be capitals. 

14. Numerical letters should be capitals. ' . 



CHAPTER III. 

OF VERSIFICATION 

Few people are to be found, who do not sometimes read poetry. Tin. 
ively and forcible mode of exhibiting nature and senti.ment may, when 
;haste and judicious, be an innocent and instructive employment for a 
noderate portion of time. It will, therefore, be necessary to give the 
cholar a definition and explanation of this part of grammar, that, in read- 
ng poetry, he may be the better able to judge of its correctness, and relish 
ts beauties. 

§ 1. OF THE GENERAL DEFINITION OF VERSIFICATION. 

Versification is the arrangement of a certain number and variety of syl- 



PROSODY. 149 

lables, or words according' to certain laws of measure and quantity. This 
sort af composition is called poetry. 

Poetry is divisible into two kinds of verse : Blank and Rhyme. 

Blank verse is that, which has no correspondent harmony of syllables at 
the ends of the lines : but the poetic line is known entirely by the number 
of feet it contains. 

Rhyme is divisible into couplets, triplets, and quadruplets, &c, 

A Couplet is that in which the last syllables, or words, of two lines har- 
monize in sound. 

A Triplet is that, in which the last syllables, or words, of three lines, 
harmonize in sound. 

A Quadruplet is that, in which the last syllables, or words, of four lines, 
harmonize in sound. 

Poetry is primarily divided into movement and measure' 

Movement is the progressive order of sounds, from strong to weak, from 
long to short, and slow to fast, and vice versa. 

Measure signifies the proportion of time, both in sounds and pauses. 

Measure is divisible into two kinds, viz. Feet and Pauses. 

OF POETIC FEET. 

A certain number of syllables form a foot. 

They are called feet, because, by them, the voice steps along through the 
verse, in a measured pace. And it is necessary, that these syllables, which 
mark this regular movement of the voice, should, in some measure, be dis- 
tinguished from the others. 

This distinction was made among the Romans, by dividing their sj^llables 
into long and short, ascertaining their quantity, by an exact proportion of 
time in sounding them. The long to the short were as two to one : and the 
long syllables being the most important, marked the movement. 

In English, syllables are divided into accented and unaccented. Our ac- 
cented syllables being strongly distinguished from the unaccented, by a 
peculiar stress of voice, are equally capable of marking the movement, and 
outpointing the regular.pause of the voice, as the long syllables were, by 
their quantity, among the Latins. 

When the feet are formed by an accent on the vowels, they are exactly 
the same as the feet in the ancient Latin poetry, and have the same ^just 
quantity, in their syllables. So, in this respect, we have all the ancient 
Latins had, and another method of diversifying our syllables, which they 
had not. We have, in fact, duplicates of each foot, yet with such a differ- 
ence, as to fit them for different purposes, to be applied at our pleasure. 

Every foot has, from nature, powers peculiar to itself. Upon the knowl- 
edge, and right application of these powers, the pleasure and effect of 
numbers chiefly depend. 

All feet, in poetry, consist of either two or three syllables. They are re- 
ducible to nine kinds : four of two syllables, and five of three ; viz. 

DISSYLLABLES. TRISSYLL ABLES. 

A Trochee - <o A Dactyl -co 

An Iambus o - An Anapasst o o - 

A Spondee — An Amphibrachus o - o 

A Phrrich o o An Antibrachus - o -* 

A Tribrachus o o o 

Accordingly we have nine kinds of simple verse, of which all poetry is 
formed 

^Whoever reads poetry, with attention, will frequently find that, which 
has an additional long syllable added to a Trochee, as it is called. This makes 
it at once, neither a Trochee, nor any other foot, according to the old num- 
ber, quantity, and definition pf feet. And to call a thing by one name and 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

use it by another, or to define it, in theory, to be one thing, and make it, in 
practice, another, is the sure way to keep a science always confused, and 
the ideas of scholars indefinite. And, as it has been the practice,, through 
the whole of this work, to introduce new terms, give new definitions and 
rectify old ones, where necessary, the same liberty is taken here. If this 
antibrachus is admitted, which is designed, as a counterbalance to the am- 
phihrachus, the measure of poetry, will at once, be relieved from all ambig- 
uity, and we shall then have an appropriate foot, whereby to measure every 
kind of association of syllables, that has been already adopted, or that can 
be introduced into English poetry., 

When any dissyllable foot takes an additional syllable, it is improper to 
call it a dissyllable, with an additional long, or short syllable: for the very 
addition of such syllable makes it, at once, one, or other of the denomina- 
tions of trissyllable feet. 

The Trochee has the first syllable accented and the last unaccented : as, 
"Hateful, pious." 

The Iambus has the first syllable unaccented, and the second accented ■ 
as, Betray, consist. 

The Spondee has both either accented, or unaccented : as, The pale moon. 
Come, see. 

The Pyrrich has both syllables unaccented: as, Butter, mutter. 

The Dactyl has the first syllable accented and the others unaccented : as, 
Laborer. 

The Anapaest has the last syllable accented and the other two unaccented : 
as, But in vain. 

The Amphibrachus has the middle sjdlable accented, and the other two 
unaccented : as, Domestic, disdaining, complaining, delightful. 

The Antibrachus has the accent on the third syllable, and the others 
unaccented : as, Truest love, | from above, | shall endure, j ever more. | 

The Tribrachus has all the syllables unaccented : as, mystery. 

Poetic Quantity is of two kinds ; time and measure. The temporal 
quantity is that space or length of time, required in going through properly, 
in the pronunciation of the poetic line, 

The mensural quantity is the number of feet the poetic line contains. 
m 

JSote. Generally, where the syllables, in a foot, are all of a kind, they 
have no poetic accent, though the Spondee seems sometimes to have an 
accent, on both syllables. It is, therefore, left in the alternative. 

The feet are divided into principal and secondary. The principal are the 
Trochee, the Iambus, the Dactyl, and the Anapaest. These are called prin- 
cipal, because all poems consist principally of one, or the other of these 
feet. The others are called secondary, because they are never the leading 
parts, in any poem, but are only used to diversify the others, and render the 
composition more sprightly and familiar. 

We will now go on and explain the use of these feet, by familiar exam- 
ples. And 

1. OE TROCHAIC VERSE. 

This is first unopedal, consisting of one pure Trochaic foot : as, 

"Waiting | "Hov'ring| " Hoping | 
"Longing | "Shrinking | "Dying," j 

This though too short for a poem of any length, may, if sparingly used, 
appear sprightly and well in stanzas. 

2. Duopedal, having two feet, both of which are Trochees, or one a 
Trochee associated with any other foot : as, 



PROSODY. 15i 

"On the | mountain | " In the | days of old I 

"By a | fountain" | "Fables | plainly told'' | 

3. Tfipedal, having three feet, all of which are Trochees, or two Tro 
chees associated with any other foot : as, 

" When our | hearts are | mourning, | 
u Lord of | the worlds | above." | 

" Restless | mortals | toil for nought | 
"Bliss in j vain from j earth is sought." [ 

" Doctor | Paugtis | kept a school" 

4. Quadrupedal, having all the feet Trochees, or having three Trochees 
associated with any other foot : as, 

"Round us ] roars the | tempest | louder." j 

" Idle | after dinner, | in his chair, | 
"Sat a | farmer, | ruddy, | fat and fair." | 

5. Quinquepedal, having five feet, all of which are Trochees, or four 
Trochees associated with any Other foot : as, 

" All that | walk on | foot or | ride in | chariots, j 

"All that | dwell in | pala | ces, or | garrets." | 

"Those who | live on J pamper'd | food are | delicate" | 

"Those who | sin and | pray and | sin and | pray are | reprobate." | 

6. Sexipedal, having six feet, all Trochees, or five Trochees, associated 
with any other foot. 

"On a | mountain, | stretch'd be | neath a j hoary | willow, | 
" Lay a ] shepherd | swain and | vlew'd the | rolling | billow." | 

We have no examples of the Trochaic, which go beyond this, nor any 
example of any lines, which end in any other foot, though capable of that 
variation. 

In all these Trochaic, measures, the accent is to be placed on the odd 

syllables, 

11. OF IAMBIC VERSE. 

1. Unopedal, having but one Iambic foot. 



" If he | 
" Disdain | 


" If she | 

" Complain." | 


Above | 

My love 

o 

Is pai'd | 



Though we have no reguler poems extant, which have such stanzas ; 
yet they are sometimes seen in occasional pieces, but should be used very 
sparingly. 

2. Duopedal, having two feet, both of which are Iambics, or an Iambic, 
associated with any other foot : as, 

" What place | Is here ! | "To me | the rose | 

" What scenes | appear! | "No long | er glows." | 

o 

" Upon | a mountain | "Beside | a fountain." | 

This form is also too short for any thing but occasional stanzas. 

3. Tripedal, having three Iambics, or two Iambics associated with some 
other foot : as, 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

"In pia | ces far j or near j Where whol ] some Is j the air j 

c o 

"Or fam j ous or j obscure | Or where j the most j impure." 

"Our hearts | no long [ er languish." 

4. Quadrupedal, having four feet, all Iambics, or three Iambics associated 
with any other foot. 

o 
" And may | at last | my wea | ry age | 
"Find out | the peace | ful herm | itage." | 

" Sweet is | the work | my God | my king"' | 

5. Quinquepedal, havin g fiv feet, all Iambics, or four Iambics, associated 
with any other foot. 

"How lov'd I how val I u'd once ! avails I thee not I 
"To whom I relat I ed or I by whom I begot." I 

This i3 what we call our heroic measure. In its simple form, it consists 
of five Iambics. But by exchanging, oeeassionally, Iambics for other feet, 
it is capable of many varieties And most of our English verse may be 
varied, in the same way, as well as by the different position of the Pauses. 

6. Sexipedal, having six Iambic feet This is called the Alexandrine 
measure : as, 

"For thou I art but ' of dust; I be hum I ble and I be wise." | 

This kind is only elegant, on solemn and gjeat occasions, and should be 
sparingly used : as 

"The seas I shall waste, I the skies I in smoke I decay, I 
"Rocks fall I to dust I and moiin I tains melt I away; I 
" But fix'd I his word, I his sov I reign pow'r I remains : I 
"Thy realm I forev I er lasts, I thy own I Messi I ah reigns " | 

7. Septipedal, having seven Iambic feet : as, 

"The" Lord I descend I ed from I above I and bow'd I the Heav'ns I most 
high." I 

This used to be written in one line ; but is now broken into two, and, in 
sacred poetry, is called common metre : as 

" The dear j delights | we here | enjoy | 
o 

" And fond | ly call | our own I 

o 
"Are but | short fa | vors bor | row'd now | 

"To be I repaid | anon." | ♦ 

Sometimes a short syllable is added to the tripedal pure Iambic lines. 
This makes the last foot an Amphibraclins. 

"And any oath the state impos'd 
o 
"I most | devout J ly swore it." | 

" But now I'm forc'd to leave the place, 
o 
"Because | 1 did j rebel, Sir." j 

In all these measures, the accent is to be placed on the even syllables. 
As the septipedal form is, in fact, probably obsolete, the lines will fall alter- 
nately under the quadrupedal and tripedal verse. 



PROSODY. 153 

3. OF DACTYLIC VERSE, 

1. Unopedal, having but one Dactylic foot : as, 

" But in vain, | Orator, 

"They complain." | Senator, 

Horizon, 
Asylum. 

2. Duopedal, having two feet, both of which are Dactyls, or one Dactyl, 
and one of any other kind : as, 

"But ill vain | they complain." | 

3. Tripedal, having three feet, all Dactyls, or two Dactyls associated with 
any other foot : as, 

"From the low | pleasures of | our nature." j 

" Dear Mary I your joy and I delight I 
"Poor girl's In i a pitl I ful plight." | 

4. Quadrupedal, having four Dactyls, or three Dactyls, and one foot of 
any other foot : as, 

"From the low i pleasures of I this fallen j nature." 

We have no instances of this, beyond the quadrupedal quantity. And 
instances are so rare of Dactyl poems, that it is more a matter of curiosity 
than use. It is used chiefly as a secondary measure, like the other secon- 
dary feet, to diversify poems. It seems to be nothing more than the Ana- 
paestic foot, with the accent on the first syllable instead of the third. For 
the examples given, under the unopedal and duopedal quantities are anapae- 
stic verse, with the accent thus changed. This beautiful interchange of 
accent, quantity and measure holds more, or less among all the feet. 

4. OF A5APJESTIC VERSE. 

1. Unopedal, having but one Anapaestic foot; as, 

But a hole j 

o 

In the wall ! 

o 
" But In vain, j Or the roof j 

o 
" They complain." I Of my dome. I 

2. Duopedal, having two feet, both Anapaests, or the first an Anapcest, 
followed by any other foot: as, 

" But in vain, I they complain." 1 

"Fair Cynth'a I retlr'd I 

o 
"And mantled ! her smiles." I 

" But his cour I age 'gan fail'd f 
" For no art I could avail." 

By adding a syllable we make the first foot an Anapaest, the second a 
Pyrrich, and the third a Trochee : as, 

" But his cour I age 'gan I faii'd him I 
"For no art I could av I ail him." I 

3. Tripedal, having three Anapaestic feet, or two Anapaests associated 
with anv other; as, 

7* 




154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

" O yg woods I spread your branch I es a pace | 

o 
" To your deep J est recess ( es I fly, | 
o 
"I would hide | with the beast | of the chase f 
o 
11 1 would van I ish from ev I 6ry eye." | 

" Whose nectar I my senses | regal'd ! 

o 
"And beauty I enraptur'd I my eye." • 

4. Quadrupedal, having four Anapeestic feet, or three Anapaests associated 
with any other foot : as, 

" Little red | breast was chant | ing his notes | by her side, | 

o 
''And the tur | tie was coo | ing a tune | to his mate." 

"The groves were | resonant | with music | and glee," | 

5. Quinquepedal, having the three first feet Anapaestic, the fourth a 
Pyrrich, and the fifth a Trochee : as, 

"On the cold | cheek of death, | smiles and ros | es are | blinding." 

This is the largest mensural quantity, we have in English poetry of 
Anapaestic measure. 

These are the different kinds of principal feet, in their more simple forms. 
They are capable of numerous variations, by the intermixture of them with 
each other, and the occasional admission of secondary feet, We have ob- 
served, that English verse is formed of feet, made of accent as well, as 
quantity. That the student may clearly see the difference, we will give a 
few examples. 

o 
" O'er ligaps | of ru | in stalk'd j the state | ly hind." | 

Here the accent is on the vowel, in every second syllable. In the fol- 
lowing, the accent is on the consonant. 

"ThSn rust | ling, crack j ling, crash | ing, thfin | der down." | 

Here, the want of quantity, in the short syllable, made long by accent, is 
compensated by short eommaic pauses, except at the end, and there the 
dipthong sufficiently enlarges the syllable. 

We will now proceed to notice, a little, the manner, in which poetry is 
varied, beautified, and improved, by the association of the principal feet, 
and the occasional intermixture of the secondary feet. 

" Murmuring | and with | him fled j the shades | of night." j 

" See the | bold youth | strain up | the threat j ning steep." [ 

"That on | weak wings ] from far j pursues ] your flight." { 

o o 

" As I rang'd | through the lawns, 

o 
" One morning | in May, | 

" And ambled J along [ in the grove: | 

" So sweet | blush'd the rose, | 
" Whose fragrance ] my senses | regal'd, | 

"And beauty | enraptur'd | my eye. | 

"The birds, | on the trees, | 
"Were dressing | their plumes; [ 
" The Linnet | was tuning | her lyre : [ 



PROSODY. 155 

" The lark had | ascended | 
u The oak, j and she sang | 
M To welcome | the tides j of the morn. | 

"Each heart J with joy, j 
" Each scene | with delight ( 
u Was full and J overflowing | with bliss." [ 

u To my | muse give | attention | and deem it | not a | mystery I 
" if I | jumble | together j poetry | and his | tory " j 

"And so | merry be | the memory | of good | queen Bess. | 
" O the | golden daj-s | of good | queen Bess." | 

In the preceding examples the syllables are all marked, and the feet all 
measured. The scholar will distinctly notice the difference between sylla- 
bles long by quantity and long by position. For the former have the accent 
always on the vowel, and the latter on the consonant. Some call them 
long by accent; and it is immaterial which, if we do but properly distin- 
guish between the two kinds. And where a syllable is long by position, 
it always has a pause of sense or quantity, associated with it, to make up 
the deficiency of real quantity. Again, some syllables, having the accent 
on the vowel, are short by position. And, in many instances, they seem 
to bestow some of their own quantity on the syllables, long by accent, 
associated with them. 

From the foregoing illustrations, we may perceive what a copious stock 
for versification, the English language possesses. For we have, as before 
observed, all the ancient poetic feet, in cur heroic measure, w T ith duplicates 
of each, agreeing in movement, though differing in measure; and which 
make a different impression on the ear : a richness peculiar to our language, 
which may be the source of a great and pleasing variety. 

§ 3. OF POETIC PAUSES 

Poetic pauses are of two kinds : sense and melody. 

The sentential pauses are those, known by the name of stops. See 
Punctuation. 

The harmonic pause is that, which designates words of particular impor- 
tance, and is divisible into two kinds; final and c<Bsiiral. These sometimes 
coincide with the sentential pauses, and sometimes exist where the others 
do not 

The final pause is at the end of the line, closes the verse and makes the 
measure, in all kinds of poetry, and preserves the melody without injuring 
the sense. It marks the bound of the metre; and. being made only by a 
suppression or elevation of the voice, not a change of tone, except at a 
period, it never affects the sense. This final pause, or stop of suspension , 
is not the only advantage gained to numbers. It also prevents that monot 
ony, or sameness of note, at the end of the lines, which, however pleasintr 
to the vulgar, is disgusting to a delicate ear. For, as this final pause has 
no peculiar note of its own, but takes that which belongs to the preceding 
word, it changes c mtinually with the matter, and is as various as the sense 

The final pause, alone, on many occasions, marks the distinction between 
prose and verse : as, 

Of man's first disobedience and the fruit of that forbidden tree, whose 
mortal taste bro't death into our world, with all its woe, &c. 

" Of man's first disobedience, the fruit 
Of that forbidden tree, whose mortal taste 
Bro't death into our world, with all its woe." 

This shews how necessary it is, in reading verse, to make every line 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

sensible to the ear. For what is the use of melody ; and for what end has 
the poet composed in verse, if v in reading, we suppress his numbers, by 
omitting the final pause, and degrade them, by our improper pronunciation, 
into mere prose ? 

The caesura! pause divides the poetic line into equal, or proper parts. In 
heroic verse, the caesura is commonly on the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable. 
But in this, as every thing else, the genius of the poem must govern. For 
what nature feels, slie will express, and that expression is never wrong ; and, 

1. On the fourth syllable, or end of the second foot : as, 

The sll ] ver eel'' ] in shining volumes roll'd 

The yel j low carp" | in scales bedrop'd" with gold. 

2. On the fifth syllable, or middle of the third foot : as, 

" Round brok j en col | umns," clasp | ing ivy twin'd, 

©■' 
"Or heaps ] of ru | in," stalk'd, ] the stately hind." 

3. On the sixth syllable, or end of the third foot : as, 

o 
"Oh, say! J what Strang | er cause," | yet unexplor'd 
44 Could make | a gen j tie belle" | reject a lord." 

4. A line may be divided into three parts by caesuras : as, 

" Outstretch'd | he lay," | on the | cold ground" j and oft." | 

As syllables, in their arrangement into words, admit a whole, and semi, 
or half accent; so words arranged into poetic lines, in certain cases, admit 
the whole and the semi, or half caesura, in certain cases : as, 

Warms' in the sun/' refreshes' in the breeze, 
Glows' in the stars," and blossoms' in the trees, 
t Lives' thro' all life," extends' thro' all extent, 
Spreads' undivided," operates' unspent, 
Glows' while he reads;" but trembles' as he writes. 
Mean' but | yet great," | commanding' tho' reserv'd." 

Sometimes the caesura! and final pauses come together at the end of the 
line, as in the above examples. 

§ 4. OF HARMONY, MELODY AND EXPRESSION. 

Having shewn the general nature and use of feet and pauses, the con- 
stituent parts of verse, it now remains, more particularly, to notice the 
effect, which a right management of them produces: viz. Harmony, Melo 
dy and Expression. In these, the whole charm of poetry consists. 

1. OF HARMONY. 

Harmony is an agreeable effect produced by the regularity, and uniform- 
ity of sound, movement and measure. 

A poem composed purely of any one kind of measure is always harmo- 
nious, though some kinds of measure are, in themselves, more harmonious, 
than others. Bur this is a grace which, in poetry, as well as music, tires 
by its uniformity. For this reason, writers of real genius have sought and 
introduced a variety, into their verses. 

2. OF MELODY. 

Melody is a pl?asing sensation on the ear, produced from the a,pt, various 
and proper arrangement of the constituent parts of verse, according to the 
laws of movement and measure. 



PROSODY. 157 

As harmony, from its sameness of sound, in time, ceases to please, melo- 
dy, which is an agreeable variety of movement and measure, is introduced. 
For this purpose, the Iambus is a relief to Trochaic sameness ; the spright- 
liness of the Pyrrich is exchanged for the slow and dignified gravity of the 
Spondee; the Anapsest is exchanged for the Dactyl; the Antibrachus for 
the Amphibrachus, and the Tribrachus is a common relief to all the trissyl- 
lable feet The beauty of the poetic edifice is their due and proper inter- 
mixture with each other. 

The following are examples of the use of the Trochee to relieve the 
Iambic sameness. 

Favors j to none, j to all | she smiles j extends, j 

Oft she | rejects. | but nev | er once | offends. | 

° 

Ail these [ our no j tions vain, j sees and derides, j 

Next we have the Spondee and the Pyrrich. 

o 

On the | green bank | to look | into I the clear | 
Smooth lake, j that to | me seem'd j anoth | er sky | 
Stood' rul d,' j stood' vast" J inf'ln j I tilde | confln'd. | 

The admission of the Amphibrachus is another source of melody. 

Which many | a bard had | chaunted ] many | a day. | 

Another source of melody is the comparison of the different members of 
'.wo or more lines. 

See' the \ bold youth'' | strain' up j the threat | 'ning steep" j 
Rush' through | the thick j ets" down' j the val j leys sweep. | 

Thy forests Windsor," and thy green retreats, 
At once, the Monarch's" and the mus's seats, 
Invite my lays." Be present, Sylvan maids, 
Unlock your springs" and open ali your shades.' 

Not half so swift" the trembling doves can fly, 

When the fierce eagle" cleaves the liquid sky ; 

Not half so swiftly" the fierce eagle- moves, 

When thro' the clouds" he drives the trembling doves. 

The ceesura adds greatly to the melody of a poem. And the greater the 
csesural variety^ if just and natural, the greater the melody. 

3. OF EXPRESSION. 

The last, greatest, and finishing ornament of a poem, is Expression. 

Expression is an apt and natural choice of words and a proper arrange- 
ment of the constituent parts of verse so, as to illustrate and enforce the 
tho'ts, feelings, and sentiments of the author. 

In this, the grace and majesty of verse consist. 

In expressing sentiments by words, the language naturally falls into a 
movement correspondent to that, produced in the mind, by emotion. Ac- 
cordingly the Trochee, the Iambus, the Dactyl, or Anapsest, with the oc- 
casional interspersions of the other feet, prevails. And, even in common 
discourse, more of less of this generic movement exists. To imitate na- 
ture, therefore, the poet must conform the movement to the sentiment, the 
sentiment to the subject. 

That a various and judicious management and interchange of the feet 
and pauses is peculiarly expressive of the operations, sentiments and emo- 
tions of the mind is evident to any one, who reads poetry, with taste, feel- 
ing and understanding. 



158 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

We will close our subject of Grammar, with a few quotations illustrative 
of these three great ornaments of verse, 

In the following, the vast dimensions of Satan are shewn, by an uncom- 
mon succession of long syllables, which detain us to survey thehucre, arch 
fiend, in his fixed posture. 

So strech'd | out huge | in length | the arch \ fiend lay. | 

The next shows us the power and elegance of the Trochee, in the be- 
ginning of Iambic verse. 

and, sure within, 
Lights on J his feet : ] as when | a prowl | ing wolf [ 
Leaps o'er | the fence, | with ease"'| into | the fold. | 

The Trochee shews Satan in the act of lighting : the Iambus fixes him 
firm on the ground- The same artifice, in the next line, is applied to the 
wolf, with which Satan is compared. 

The following show the effect produced by the csesura, so placed, as to 
divide the line into unequal, yet natural parts. 

thus, with the year, 
Seasons { return;" | but not I to me j returns | 
Day," or | the sweet j approach j of eve j or morn. | 

No sooner had th' Almighty ceas'd, but all 

The multitude of angels, with a shout 

Loud/'' as from numbers, without number/' sweet," 

As from blest voices uttering joy. 

In the first of these two examples, the caesura shews strongly. Milton's 
great loss, the loss of sight. In the second, the sublimity of worship in 
heaven, the multitude of worshippers, and the harmony of their praise. 

We close with an example containing a great variety of feeling, senti- 
ment, and expression. 

Dire' was j the toss | ing," deep' j the groans," j despair" | 

Tended | the sick;" j bus'est' j from couch j to couch," j 

° ' ' 

And ov | er them | triumph j ant Death" j his dart" I 

Shook," but | delay' d j to strike.' j 

In poetry, as in music, a good writer will copy nature. By feeling 
properly the force and warmth of his own sentiments, he will teach others 
to feel the pathos and to catch the flame. He will not sicken his readers 
with the monotony of the one grace, nor disgust them with the richness 
and power of the others. For well he knows, that Harmony pleases by its 
similarity and sweetness of sound ; that Melody .charms by its variety ; 
and that Expression, the masterpiece of the whole work, captivates by its 
pathos, grandeur, and energy. 

posrcuiPT 

Having treated of Grammar generally, and the parts distinctly, and in 
some measure laid the anatomy of the language open, it will be proper now 
to lead the scholar to a right understanding of the abstract parts of speech. 
And this from the nature of the work, must be done in few words. 

Grammar, considered as a science, and we have no other way of consid- 
ering it understanding^, is like all the other sciences, and can onlj- be 
rightly understood and taught, by dividing the generic terms into their 
proper species. For the only way of keeping our ideas clear and perspicuous 
is to give all the terms, differing in sense, definitions corresponding to their 
nature and use. 



PROSODY. 159 

Therefore, after the scholar has acquired a thorough knowledge of the 
subject, he may philosophize. But it will be idle for him to begin his phi- 
losophy, before he shall have learned the terms. 

Our learned grammar writers have holden, that language has only two 
abstract parts of speech: the noun and the verb* This is undoubtedly true 
in an abstract, but not in a distributive sense. The noun is the abstract 
term of all quality and circumstance. The adjective and adverb are, there- 
fore only corruptions, or perhaps more properly called variations of that 
original part of speech. 

*The other parts of speech are called particles, and have been considered 
to be terms, which express not ideas but connect them. This appears not 
to be true, either in theory or fact. For, as they radically are ideas, they 
must derivitavely possess more, or less of their abstract nature. The pre- 
cise difference and analogy of terms are as indefinable, as the properties 
and qualities of nature. The extremes are plain and visible, 

" But where the shades begin and end, 
None, but who made can tell." 

This indefinability of terms, the inexplicable manner, in which they 
agree and disagree, makes the whole beauty and excellence of language. 
And though we are wanting in faculties to explain, nature has given us a 
sense, whereby we clearly understand 

The prepositions, for instance, have been considered to be words, not 
expressing ideas, but showing relation between words, which express ideas. 
Exam "The Bridge between Boston and Cambridge." Here betioeen is 
not a simple term, expressive only of relation between bridge and the object 
it governs; but it is the prominent word, which explains the whole sen- 
tence. It is, to the sentence, exactly what the bridge is to those two places. 

" A journey from Boston to New York." Here from signifies the outset, 
or departure, and to, the whole way between those places. Will any one 
undertake to say that the outset is not a circumstance sufficient for an idea, 
or that the whole intermediate space, between those places, is not sufficient 
to be the subject matter of an idea? 

Words in a sentence are like men paraded in ranks. The foremost, we 
see plainly, the next not so plainly. Shall we say of those, who are only 
in part visible, that they are not there? 

So of the adverbs and adjectives: as, "I do it willingly," Here I is the 
agent, do the verb, expressing the mechanical action of the body and its 
members, in performing the action; it, the thing done or performed; wit' 
lingly, the act of the mind, concurring with the animal action. 

" The man is upright," The .designates jthe person ; man is the object, 
to which our attention is directed ; is represents the existence, or being of 
that object; upright directs our attention to all the former acts and doings 
of the man. It is plain, that in the above examples, every word, carries, 
with it, its own proper idea, either primary or secondary. And we can no 
more say that every word, in a sentence, is not directly, or indirectly, an 
idea, than that the different materials of a house are not matter of sub- 
stance, because some are larger and more important and conspicuous than 
others. 

1. OF THE ADJECTIVE. 

We say, " a good man," u a swift horse," " a pleasant prospect." The 
abstract, substantive terms are, " goodness' man," "swiftness' horse," 
"pleasantness' prospect." JNature, feeling the uncouthness of the expres- 
sion and inelegance of the form, in this, as in everything else, sought the 
easiest and beautifulest method of remedying both, which, at the same 
time, should preserve the propriety of speech. She has taught us, there- 
fore, by the use of the adjective, to exhibit the goodness of internal quali- 
ty, by the comliness of external appearance, and to dress our ideas, for the 



160 ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 

same reason, she has adorned herself, that both may appear to tile better 
advantage. 

2. OF THE ADVERB. 

This was, originally, only applicable to place : as, Here, for in this place; 
there, for in that place ; where, for in what place, fyc. But the refinement of 
language has elegantly extended them to other forms of expression. 

3. The was originally, in the Saxon language, a relative pronoun, which 
we have changed into an article. It still bears a great resemblance to this 
and that, when they are used as demonstrative pronouns. 

Ji or an is derived from the Saxon adjective, sen, i. e. one 

4. Of the pronoun, as a derivative of the noun, nothing need be said 
here, See pronouns. 

Thus we see, that the noun is the parent stock, from which the other 
parts of speech, above named, have sprung. 

The other parts of speech, as we shall notice below, are corruptions, or 
variations of the verb. And, 

1. The participle is the first ancTmost apparent variation of the verb. See 
participles. 

2. The gerund, which is another form and manner of using the partici- 
ple, is the next variation of the verb. See gerunds. 

3. Prepositions are also a branch, or ramification of the verb. Their use 
soon showed their importance, as terms expressive of relation, between 
other terms. And, as they were found to be an ornament, a convenience, 
and a perspicuity, their number has become considerably large, and their 
use extensive. 

4. The conjunctions are derived from the verbal stock : as, if, for ex- 
ample, is from the same Saxon root, as give: viz. gifan: as, "If it be so; " 
i. e. suppose it be so, or give, that it be so, &c. The other hypothetical 
conjunctions seem only to be variations of its meaning. And is also de- 
rived from a verb. 

And being able to penetrate thus far into the abstract nature of this class 
of words, it is immaterial whether we can, or can not trace every one be- 
longing to it, to a verbal origin. 

5. The interjection is unquestionably of the verbal family, if not of ver- 
bal origin, for it expresses a powerful act of the mind, though in so abstract 
a sense, that it indicates not its relation to any nominative word Or, to 
give the term its whole nature, character, and merit, is it not a verb in so 
abstract a state, that it contains both the noun and verb, within itself? and 
we have great reason, in fact, to suppose, this to be the abstract part of 
speech, from which the noun and verb are derived. However this may be, 
one thing is certain, that no animal exists, having the power of vocal sound, 
which has not more or less of this abstract language, aad it is the first, 
which children attempt to use. 

However few the abstract parts be, they are now, in our language, split 
into eleven distinct classes, each of which, in office and signification, is 
variant from the others. And to resolve them now, into their abstract 
terms, would be the same, as to resolve nature into its original elements: 
the effect would destroy the whole. The state of our language is now, 
therefore, Tike every other thing self-evident, viz it is icliat it is; and, on 
this ground, we must use, understand, and explain it. 

We should not feel unpleasant, at the fact, but bless our happy fate, that 
the wisdom of the human mind was able to invent the abstract terms, and 
its faculties and genius to divide them into their appropriate species, to 
form and fit them together, in such masterly order, as, from so scanty a stock 
of materials, to erect the superb and useful structure of language. 

ThLt the classification of language is correct, is certain from these two 
facts : 1, that all languages, so far, as their idioms correspond, agree in the 
number of their parts of speech, their use and oilices : 2, the affinity, 



rKObUDi. J 61 

which language bears to nature. The nouns are the solid land, the verbs, 
the fluid elements. The variations of these abstract terms, their natural 
and necessary combinations, with one another, ornament language in the 
same manner, that the various productions adorn the face cf nature. And 
it raises no small admiration, in the reflective mind, to observe, how all the 
works of God, in nature are allied, which discovers his vastness of skill, 
and original design, and his goodness, in communicating so much of him- 
self, through his works, to his creatures. 

ANALYSIS.* 

Man, that is born of a woman, is of few days and full of trouble. Man 
is the subject of discourse; that, its relative substitute; is ascertains the 
existence of that subject ; born signifies, that he came into existence, by 
ordinary generation, and not by any special act of the Creator ; of signi- 
fies, the act of parturition, or birth; a denotes women generally; woman 
denotes the origin of man's animal existence; is here shows existence, 
with animal life ; of denotes the duration of that existence, and the rela- 
tion between days and man ; feio denotes the nature and shortness of that 
existence; days signifies the chronological numbers of which the existence 
is composed; and combines other circumstances with man, besides his bare 
existence; full denotes the manner of life; of signifies the reciprocal and 
intimate connexion between man and his misfortunes; troubles denotes the 
circumstances attendant on man's life Job 14: 1. 

He discovereth deep things out of darkness, outbringeth to light the shad- 
ow of death. He is the agent; discover eth signifies that the agent is mak- 
ing something appear plainly which has not, heretofore ; deep gives a reason, 
why these things have not before been apparent; things denotes the objects, 
upon which the agent acts ; out of signifies that these things are actually 
brought to light; darkness signifies the obscurity, whence they are brought; 
and signifies that the same agent has another act to perform, which has 
some relation to the former; outbringeth signifies the act and the manner 
in which it is done ; to signifies the effect, which the act hath accomplished; 
light signifies the place where the thing is placed or left; the designates 
the particular object, which the act affects ; shadow is the object itself; of 
is the term of possession, shows the influence, which shadow has over death, 
and the mutual connexion between them ; death signifies the abstract cause, 
which produces this. Job, 12; 22. 

I will praise him as long as I live, /is the agent; icill praise represents 
the performance of the act and the time ; him is the object affected by that 
act ; as long as represents the continuance of time, or the whole duration 
of life, and the certainty of the act, while time continues; /is the same 
a^ent, performing another act, or connected with some other circumsstanee; 
shall live signifies the continuance of existence. 

All the days of 1113^ appointed time, will 1 wait, till my change shall come. 
«#// signifies every one cellectively considered : the shows of what the du- 
ration of life is composed ; days signifies" the distributive parts of time, of 
which life is composed; of denotes possession and the influence, which 
days have over time, and the mutual connexion between them; my is pos- 
sessory, and shows the. interest, which the agent has in time; appointed 
signifies time to be a given and measured quantity; /is the agent; will 
wait shows the continuance of existence, and the disposition of the mind; 
till includes the whole time of life up to the very end ; my confines the act, 
or circumstance of death to the agent, in distinction from any one else; 
change signifies the close of existence, or death ; shall come signifies the 
event to be future, but certain. 

Oh, that my head were waters, and my eyes a fountain of tears, that 1 
might weep day and night, for the slain of the daughters of my people. 
Oh an abstract verb, before me understood, and shows great grief; that is an 



162 uinu-jliSK GRAMMAR. 

affirmative term, signifying the earnestness of the desire; my is possessor, 
and shows to whom the head belongs; head is the place designated by the 
wish; were signifies the supposed existence of head, in the manner desired; 
waters is the same as head, only it shows the peculiar kind of matter, into 
which the head is supposed to be converted; and combines another hypo- 
thetical circumstance, with the former; my shows to whom the eyes be- 
long; eyes is affected by the wish, in the same manner as head; a refers the 
idea to fountains, generally ; fountain has the same relation to eyes as wa- 
ters have to head; of is a possessive term, shows the influence, which 
fountain has over tears and their mutual connexion ; tears shows the pecu- 
liar kind of fluid, of which the fountain is composed; that affirms what the 
agent would do, if the preceding proposition should be effected; /is the 
agent ; might iceep signifies the act and the possibility of performing it, if 
the preceding supposed acts should happen; day and night signifies, that 
the act should be incessant; for gives the reason for the act and why done ; 
the particularly distinguishes the slain from the living; slain signifies the 
very persons, for whom the act is done and their condition; of signifies pos- 
session, the influence, which slain has over daughter, and the reciprocal 
connexion between them ; the shows the particular person meant ; daugh- 
ters shows, of whom the slain were, r e. the flower of the nation; of signi- 
fies possession, the influence, which daughters has over people ; my is pos- 
sessory, showing to whom the people belong; people is the abstract, sub- 
stantive term, of which the slain were a part. 

N. B. In parsing the English language, scholars should be taught, as 
they name the parts of speech and apply the rules of syntax, to analyze 
every word, according to the foregoing manner. This will enable them to 
know not only to what class of speech each word belongs, but also what 
particular associated idea it brings along with it. 

By thoroughly solving and analyzing sentences in this abstract manner, 
the scholar will get a better knowledge of the language, and the radical 
meaning of words, and the ideas they convey, than by running over them, 
according to the old manner. 






APPENDIX. 



Having finished what we had to say on the subject of Grammar, it will be 
proper to make a few remarks, shewing the scholar how to reduce the pre- 
ceding system to practice. And, as these observations go to show the right 
and proper use of words so, as to convey clear and distinct ideas, they fall 
under that denomination, in ethics, called Perspicuity. 

PERSPICUITY 

Is that abstract quality, in composition, which expresses ideas clearly and 
intelligibly, where they are neither left obscure, for the want of words, 
nor embarrassed with a redudancy. Perspicuity is such a fundamental 
quality, that for want of it, nothing can atone. We admire an author, 
whose language is like a crystal stream, showing the very bottom of ever} 
idea, as we pass along; and we are disgusted with one, in whose writings 
we only discover mangled images and confused ideas. 

Perspicuity is divisible into two general heads: I, as to single words; 
2, as to sentences. 

CHAPTER I. 

Of Perspicuity, or accuracy of Expression with respect to single words and 

phrases, 

Perspicuty, as it respects single words and phrases, has the following 
properties : Purity, Propriety, and Precision. 

And here is the proper place to observe, that the manner in which an 
author writes, whether clear, or obscure, is called his style. 

§ 1. OF PURITY. 

Purity is the use and arrangement of words according to the idiom of the 
language. In a pure, English discourse, therefore, we should use neither 
words nor phrases of other languages, which have not been adopted and 
defined, unless they have a clear meaning, or an appropriate signification, 
without explaining and defining them. Inelegant and obsolete words 
should also be avoided. Foreign and learned words, unless from necessity, 
should not be introduced into our composition. For we should not, in 
showing our learning, make ourselves pedantic. Barren languages may 
need such assistance, which is not the case with ours. A plain, native 
style, is, therefore, on all occasions, preferable, especially as the great de- 
sign of speaking and writing, is to instruct those who hear and read. And 
it is not to be expected that the mass of the people understand any lan- 
guage, but their own. 



164 APPENDIX. 

§ 2. OF PROPRIETY. 

Propriety, in language, is the selection and use of such words, as the 
best usage and custom has appropriated to the ideas which we wish to ex- 
press. Our language may be pure, and strictly English, though deficient 
in propriety. For the words may be illy chosen, unadapted to the subject, 
expressing more or less, than is intended. 

To preserve propriety, in our words and phrases, we should supply such 
words as are wanting; not use the same word, in different senses; avoid 
low expressions: the injudicious use of technical phrases: equivocal, or 
ambiguous words ; unintelligible expressions, and all words and phrases 
not adapted to our meaning. 

1. Supply such words as are wanting. 

"Arbitrary power I look npon, as a greater evil, than anarchy itself, as 
much as a savage is a happier state of life, than a slave at the oar." I view 
arbitrary power, as a greater evil than anarchy itself, inasmuch as the sav- 
age is happier than a slave, at the oar. u He has not treated this subject 
liberally, by the views of others, as well as his own." " He, by adverting 
to the opinions of others, as well as his own, has not treated this subject lib- 
erally." u This generous action greatly increased [the merit of] his former 
services." 

Articles and prepositions are often improperly omitted. " How immense 
the difference between the pious and [the] profane ! " u Death is the com- 
mon lot of all ; of good men and [of] bad." 

Articles and prepositions should not be repeated, when we wish to point 
out the objects, of which we speak, as distinguished each from the other. 
" Our sight is, at once, the delightfulest and the usefulest of all our senses." 

2. Use not the same word, in different senseSi 

" One may have an air, which proceeds from a just sufficiency and knowl- 
edge of the matter before him, which may naturally produce some motions 
of the head and body, which might become the bench, better than the bar." 
" One may have an air, proceeding from a just knowledge of the matter be- 
fore him, which may naturally produce some motions of the head and body, 
better becoming the bench than the bar." The improper use of which, in the 
above sentence, spoiled the sense. " Gregory favored the undertaking, for 
no other reason, than this : that the manager, in countenance, favored [re- 
sembled] his friend." 

3. Avoid low expressions : 

As, Topsiturvy, hurliburly, p ell m ell; having a month's mind for a thing ; 
currying favor; dancing attendance. 

u Meanwhile, the Britons, left to shift for themselves, were forced to call 
in the Saxons for their defence." " The Britons, being abandoned [by the 
Romans,] called the Saxons to their assistance." 

4. Acoid the injudicious use of technical terms. 

To tell those ignorant of sea-phrases, that "tacked to the larboard, and 
stood off to sea," would be perfectly unintelligible. 

5. Avoid equivocal, or ambiguous ivords. 

" As for such animals, as are mortal or noxious, we have a right to de- 
stroy them." We have a right to destroy those animals, whose poison is 
mortal, or noxious. u He aimed at nothing less than the crown." Heaim- 
ed at nothing but the crown. " And thus the son, the sire, addrest." This 
sentence is perfectly intelligible, if we use a comma after son and sire. 



APPENDIX, 165 

6. Avoid unintelligible expressions. 

Steel says, " I have observed, that the superiority among these coffee- 
house politieans, proceeds from an opinion of gallantry and fashion." This, 
of itself, is perfect nonsense. The author probably meant, " That rank, 
among these politicians, is determined, by the opinion, generally entertain- 
ed of the rank, in point of gallantry and fashion, to which each had at- 
tained." 

One, speaking of humility, says : " This temper of mind, keeps our un- 
derstanding tight about us." The author, undoubtedly, had an idea in his 
head; but, from a wrong choice of words, has conveyed none. 

7. Avoid all locrds and phrases not adapted to the meaning, which you in- 
tend to convey. 

" He feels any sorrow, that can arrive ol [happen to] man." " The con- 
science of approving one's self a benefactor, is the best recompense for 
being so." The best recompense, for one, being a benefactor, is an approv- 
ing conscience. 

§ 3. OF PRECISION. 

As to words and phrases, precision is the third requisite of perspicuity. 
It is the retrenching of superfluities, in expression so, as to express neither 
more nor less, than an exact copy of the idea. 

The words of a sentence may be faulty, in three respects: 1, in not ex- 
pressing the idea intended, but some other, which it resembles; 2, in ex- 
pressing the idea, together with something not belonging to it. For pre- 
cision, in words, means, that they exhibit neither more nor less than the 
.-deas in the mind. 

The importance and necessity of precision exists in nature. The human 
mind is not capable, at once, of viewing distinctly more than one obiect, 
\i, therefore, two, or three similar, or dissimilar things are, at once, pre- 
sented, the ideas become confused; the mind not being able precisely to 
determine, wherein they agree, nor wherein they differ, So, should I view 
an animal, with a design of forming a clear and exact idea of its size and 
figure, 1 would have it perfectly uncovered and alone, that my attention 
might not be divided. So, when any one informs me of a fact, if he uses 
words, which are not applicable to his own ideas, which express only a part 
of his meaning, or more than his own mind contains, instead of deriving 
pleasure from the story, I am left to the painful necessity, of tracing his 
ideas, supplying his defects, and expunging his excrescencies of expression, 
and then deducing that meaning from rfis words, which he, in narrating. 
ought clearly to have conveyed. 

If a historian tells of his hero's courage, in battle, his language is precise. 
But, if, from an ignorant fearfulness of not telling the whole, he proceeds 
~ to extol. his patience, his fortitude, his perseverance, he, at once, confuses 
the imagery and spoils his own story. 

It is no excuse, in an author, in not being precise, that the subject is well 
known and familiar. For, though it may be, to him, and to most of his 
readers ; yet some may not understand him. And authors should recollect, 
that the great object of writing is to instruct, not to amuse. 

Authors should be careful, in using words, having a resemblance in 
meaning, which are not synonymous: as, 

Custom, habit. Custom respects the act, habit, the actor. By custom, 
we mean the frequent repetition of the same act; by habit, the effect pro- 
duced, on the mind, or body. "By the custom of walking always in the 
streets, one acquires the habit of idleness." 

Pride, vanity. " Pride makes us esteem ourselves; vanitv, desires the 
esteem of others." 



166 APPENDIX. 

Haughtiness, disdain. "Haughtiness is the high opinion, we have of 
ourselves; disdain, the mean opinion, we have of others." 

Only, alone. Only means, that no other is of the same kind; alone, be- 
ing unaccompanied by any other. 

Wisdom, prudence. "Wisdom leads us to speak and act what is most 
proper; prudence prevents us from acting or speaking improperly." 

Entire, complete. A thing is entire, by wanting none of its parts ; com- 
plete, by wanting none of its appendages. A man may have a house en- 
tirely to himself, which has not one complete apartment. 

Surprised, astonished; amazed, confounded. lam surprised at what is 
unexpected; astonished, at what is vast or great: I am amazed, at what is 
incomprehensible; confounded, at what is shocking, or terrible. 

Tranquility, peace, calm,. Tranquility is a situation free from trouble, in 
itself considered ; peace relates to eternal things, which might interrupt 
tranquility ; calm is an undisturbed situation. 

Ease, quietness. Ease is freedom from pain ; quietness relates to the dis- 
position of the mind. 



CHAPTER II. 

OF PERSPICUITY, OR ACCURACY OF EXPRESSION, WITH 
RESPECT TO SENTENCES. 

Sentences should not be unnaturally long, nor short, i. e. The words 
should not cease, ti 1 the sense is fully expressed, nor proceed, after the 
idea is wholly conveyed. 

Sentences, in language, are the same as notes in music. A great succes- 
sion of long or short ones, in either, is unnatural and unpleasant. An 
agreeable variety, in either, gives the greater pleasure, which a writer of 
real genius will better manage, jfrom the dictates of nature, than the. rules 
of art. 

Purity, propriety, and precision have been shown to be necessary prop- 
erties of single words and phrases. The due arrangement of these words 
and phrases into sentences will be the subject of this chapter. We shall 
divide it into the following heads : Clearness, Unity, Strength, and Config- 
uration. 

§ 1. OF THE CLEARNESS OF A SENTENCE. 

Everything, which leaves the m»ind in suspense, in a sentence, should be 
avoided. We have before shown the evil of obscurity, as it aifects single 
words and phrases. Obscurity, in sentences, arises from two causes : 1, an 
improper choice of words ; 2, the improper arrangement of them. 

The first thing to be studied, in the construction of sentences, is the 
grammatical arrangement of the words. It is a wrong notion, which many 
good scholars have entertained, that the grammar of our language is so 
imperfect, that it does not, in all cases, precisely determine the relative 
meaning of words. This error of opinion, comes from a reprehensible in- 
attention to the very nature and system of the language. And, I undertake 
to say that, if words are, in the first place, aptly chosen, and then arranged 
according to the strict rules of the grammar of our language, that not a 
sentence would be found, either obscure, or doubtful in its meaning. 

The want of a strict grammatical construction, in sentences, is a fault, 
for which nothing can atone. The first and great object, in the use of 
words, is to convey clearly the ideas of our own minds, to the minds of 
others. Next to this, the writer of taste and genius, will endeavor, to 
make the arrangement of his words as harmonious and musical as possible* 



.APPENDIX. 16? 

This is a grace not to be neglected, for the music of words is the very life 
and soul of all eloquence. 

The following rule for the construction of sentences, if properly regarded, 
will be worth a volume of quotations and remarks. 

In ordinary discourse, the minor member should cpen, and the major 
member should close the sentence. And, as these properties occasionally 
belong to the subject, the agent or the act, they must take their order, in 
the sentence accordingly. When we wish to arrest the attention, before 
we begin the narration, the major member should begin the sentence. 
When any common place term, becomes peculiarly emphatical, it should, if 
possible, close the sentence. A circumstance should stand as near as pos- 
sible to the thing, to which it relates, and on that side least likely to obscure 
it. Qualifying terms should stand as near as possible to the words they 
qualify : and relatives, as near as possible to their antecedents. And, 

I* OF THE POSITION OF ADVERBS. 

"The Romans understood liberty, at least) as well as we*" "The Ro- 
mans understood liberty, as well, at least, as we." "Theism can only be 
opposed to polytheism, or atheism.'' " Theism can be opposed only to poly- 
theism or atheism.'' 

The adverb should be as near as possible to the word it explains, or qual- 
ifies, whether noun, adjective, verb, or adverb. 

In the following short sentence, it is remarkable, how the different loca- 
tion of the adverb, entirely alters the sense. " He is only a man," signifies 
that the person is human "He only is a man," means that no other per- 
son present, has the principles, or honor of a man. 

2. OF THE POSITION OF CIRCUMSTANCES. 

Circumstantial clauses are, to the parts of a sentence, to which they re- 
late, much the same, as adjectives, to nouns, and should precede such part3 
or members of a sentence, that, when we come to the subject, we may have 
the quality and substance united. 

"Are these designs, which any man, who is born a Rriton, in any cir- 
cumstance, in any situation, ought to be ashpaned to avow ?'' This location 
of the circumstance makes it explanatory of born, which is wrong, for it 
was evidently intended to explain avaw. " Are these designs, which any 
man, who is born a Briton, ought, in any circumstance, in any situation, 
to be ashamed, or afraid to avow? " 

If authors were fully sensible, that circumstances are really adjective 
terms, they would be more careful, in placing them. 

For the same reason that too many adjectives, are inelegant, too many 
circumstances are improper, in a sentence. 

" What I had the opportunity of mentioning to my friend, some time 
ago, in conversation, was not a new thought." "What I had the opportu- 
nity of mentioning, to my friend, sometime ago, was not a new thought." 

" The Emperor was so intent on the establishment of his absolute power, 
in Hungary, that he exposed the empire doubly to desolation and ruin, for 
the sake of it." Better thus : " The Emperor was so intent on establishing 
his absolute power, in Hungary, that, to effect his purpose, he doubly ex- 
posed the empire to desolation and ruin." 

3. OF THE POSITION OF RELATIVES. 

We have before observed, that relatives should be placed as near to their 
antecedents, as possible. And, in this, as in other things, we have only to 
follow nature, who always places the appendage, next to the thing, to which 
it belongs. " This kind of wit was very much in vogue, among our coun- 
trymen, about an age or two ago, who did not practice it for any oblique 
reason, but purely for the sake of beingr witty." The order of the words 



]<38 APPENDIX. 

here makes it relate to age, though, in fact, it refers to countrymen. " This 
kind of wit, about an age or two ago, was very much in vogue, among our 
countrymen, who did not practice it for any oblique reason, but purely for 
the sa-ie of being witty." It is really noticible, how different this sentence 
appears, and how much forcibler it strikes the sense, by placing the circum- 
stance and the relative in their proper places. 

Clearness in style, is a natural; obscurity an unnatural quality. The 
writer who follows nature, is always clear. He who deviates from nature, 
is always obscure. 

We may, with great propriety, compare the mind to a highway : the ideas 
passing 1 in it, to travellers : and the attention paid to the ideas passing in 
the m rid, to one sitting by the wayside, observing these travellers. If this 
observer looks at the passing crowd promiscuously, without fixing his at- 
tention upon any one object, the whole scene is, at once, confusion to him. 
His attention is fixed upon so many things, at once, that he has no distinct 
perception of any one single thing. Therefore, whether the transactions 
are important, or unimportant, it is all one to him; for, on account of his 
own inattention, he derives no knowledge. 

Should he. in this case, ask the advice of mother nature, she would tell 
him, il Select the object worthiest of notice, bestow your whole attention 
on that, as it passes. When that object is fairly and naturally out of sight, 
leave it, and take the next most notorious one, <md pursue the same method 
with the whole. Thus, by treasuring up one thing, at a time, in the mem- 
ory, you will clearly understand what you there deposit." 

"Thus we see that obscurity, in writing, is no fault of nature, but wholly 
the fault of the author. For, if he would fix his whole attention upon his 
ideas singly, as they pass in his mind, he himself would both understand 
them clearly, and so communicate them to others. 

§ 2. OF THE UNITY OF A SENTENCE. 

Every sentence has, among the parts, some connecting principle. But a 
simple sentence requires the strictest unity And, though a compound sen- 
tence cannot have that close connexion of parts, which subsists, in a simple 
one; yet nature always outpoints an order in arranging the words, which 
renders their sense clear and intelligible. 

1. The scenery of the language should shift no more, than the scenery 
of the events. 

The reading of language is like travelling on a road. If our progress is 
too slow, we are displeased for want of variety ; if too swift, the sudden 
transition of scenery gives us pain. But nature has here, as in all other 
places, furnished us with an unerring rule : let the order of narration foil 'ow 
the order of events. 

" The Sultan being dangerously wounded, they- carried him to his tent; 
and upon hearing of the defeat of his troops, they put him into a litter, 
which transported him to a place of safety, at the distance of about fifteen 
leagues." Here the scene changes from the Sultan to the attendants, then 
to the tent, next to the troops, next to the attendants, then to the Sultan, 
then to the litter, then to the place of safety, and, last of ail, to the distance. 
This shifting of the scenery of the language, where the scenery of events 
corresponds not with it, makes the whole a heap of confusion. The order 
of events here is very simple and natural, as will appear, by only conform- 
ing the language thereto. "The Sultan being dangerously wounded, was 
carried to his tent; and, his troops being defeated, he was put into a litter 
and transported, about fifteen leagues, to a place of safety." 

2 Never crowd, into one sentence, ichat belongs to tioo or more. 

Sentences, which violate this rule, are so very perplexing and obscure, 



APPENDIX. 169 

that it is a less evil, to divide, into two or more, what might be contained 
in one. 

Writers who deal in long sentences, are very apt to be faulty, by running- 
several into one. One speaking of one of Alexander's marches, says, 
" Their march was through an uncultivated country, whose savage inhabi- 
tants fared hardly, having no other riches, than a breed of lean sheep, whose 
flesh was rank and unsavory, by reason of their continual feeding on sea 
fish." Here the facts and order of events are good and proper for histori- 
cal narration. They contain several distinct ideas, which naturally divide 
themselves into so many distinct sentences. Had the author, instead of 
leading his ideas, permitted his ideas to have led him, he would have re- 
lated the facts simply as they were and in their own natural order. By 
reducing this jumble of words to their proper sentences, we may make it a 
good historical narration. Their march was through a country, inhabited 
by savages. They had no riches, except a breed of lean sheep, whose flesh, 
on account of their feeding continually upon seafish, was rank and unsa- 
vory." 

In the following sentence the author has wound so many ideas together, 
that, perhaps, no other person will ever be able v to tell distinctly what he 
meant. "The usual acceptation takes profit and pleasure for two different 
things, and not only calls the followers or votaries of them, by the several 
names of busy and idle men ; but distinguishes the faculties of the mind, 
that are employed about them, calling the operations of the first, wisdom, 
the other, wit; which is a Saxon word, used to express what the Spaniards 
and Italians call ingenio, and the French, esprit, both from the Latiu ? 
though I think wit more particularly signifies that of poetry, as may occur 
in remarks, on the Runic language." 

3. Use no unnecessary Parenthesis. 

These, like everything else, are only beautiful in their proper places. In 
the following sentence, the parenthesis is elegant. 

u And was the ransom paid ? It was : and paid, (what can exalt the 
bounty more?) for thee." 

In the following sentence, the parenthesis is unnatural and very inele- 
gant. " If your hearts secretly reproach you for the wrong choice you 
have made, (as there is time for repentance and retreat ; and a return to 
wisdom is always honorable) bethink yourselves that the evil is not irrepar- 
able." 

§ 3. OF THE STRENGTH OF A SENTENCE. 

By strength, in the construction of a sentence, is meant such a natural 
arrangement of the words and members, that every one may fully and 
clearly express the idea, for which it is used. 

A sentence may be clear and compact, and yet, from an injudicious ar- 
rangement of the words, may want that strength, which a better arrange^ 
ment might express. 

1. Prune the sentence of all redundant words and members. 

A redundancy of words in a sentence happens entirely from the writer 8 
own carelessness and inattention. 

11 Content with deserving a triumph, he refused the honor of it." " Con- 
tent with deserving, he refused the honor of a triumph." "In the Attic 
commonwealth, it was the privilege and birthright of every citizen and poet 
to rail aloud and in public." "In the Attic commonwealth, to rail aloud 
in public was the birthright of every citizen." 

It is hardly possible to make a short sentence more redundan , than the 
following. " They returned back again, to the same city, from whence 
they came forth." " Thev returned to the city, whence they came." 

8 




170 AVPENDIX. 

The following' tedious bulk of words contain but a single idea. " [ am 
honestly 9 seriously, and unalterably of opinion that nothing can possibly 
be more incurably and emphatically destructive, or more decisively fatal to 
a kingdom ^ than the introduction of thoughtless dissipation, and the pomp 
©f lazy luxury," Stript of redundancies, it stands thus : " I am of opinion, 
llml nothing is more ruinous to a kingdom, than luxury and dissipation. " 

Mui circumlocution, on some special and great occasions, is both proper 
■*nd elegant : as, " Shall not the Judge of all the earth do right ? " 

And here I would observe, that we have one word, viz : there, which, by 
constant use, has become the common stock of all. kinds of composition. 
And not a word can be found, in our whole vocabularly, more palpably ab- 
surd, than this is, m the places, where it is commonly used. For this word 
has no meaning at all, neither is it within the genius of our language to 
give if any, except when it refers to some certain, known and specified 
place. Then, like all other terms, properly used, it is really expressive and 
elegant. And, though nil our logicians have been constantly telling us to 
expunge all redundant words yet no one mentions, nor meddles with this, 
H authors, in using words, which have no sort of meaning, and to which 
;$© possible formation of the sentence jean give any, would use such as are 
perfectly ridiculous, they would then be more attentive to the correction of 
their own errors, Examples, 

" There is nothings which disgusts us sooner than the empty pomp of 
language." 

" Tiure- is a knack, in doing many a thing." 

16 In every composition, there is some connecting principle." 

We will now supply the place of this word, with one, in itself perfectly 
ridiculous, viz : Bnludcrluss. 

" Blunderbuss is nothing, which disgusts us sooner, than the empty pomp 
of language/ 7 

45 Blunderbuss^ is a knack of doing many a thing. " 

"In every, composition, blunderbuss is some connecting principle," 

8ee now what a real elegance the omission of this adverb adds to the 
sentence* 

"Nothing disgusts us sooner, than the empty pomp of language," 

•* Folks have a knack, in doing many a thing." 

"'Every composition has some connecting principle." 

We will now notice a few instances where the word is properly used. 

" And he cried unto the Lord; and the Lord showed him a tree, which f 
when he had cast it into the waters, the waters were made sweet : there he 
made a statute and an ordinance, and there he proved them." "And they 
came to Elam, where were twelve wells of water and three score and ten 
palm trees : and they encamped there hy the waters." Ex. xv. 
.. Perhaps a sentence cannot be worse mutilated by the use of this adverb, 
ihan the following, taken from Blackstone. "The restrictions, for some 
there are, which are laid upon petitioning in England, are of a nature 
extremely diiferent." The plain sense of the sentence is this: "Some 
restrictions which are laid upon petitioning, in England, &c." 

And merely for the sake of the impropriety of using this paltry adverb, 
we often find a plural verb associated with a singular noun : as, "When 
there are more than one original defendant, against whom judgment is re- 
covered." 1 Ms, st. 370. Meaning-— when more than one original defen- 
dant is j fyc. 

2. Avoid, all tautologies. 

These, though they may be grammatical, are both very inelegant and 
disgusting. 

" So it is, that I am forced to get home, partly by stealth, and partly bv 

Nfe." 

**By stealth and force, I am obliged to return bom??/' 



appendix, tan 

° ; Never did Atticus succeed better, in gaining the universal love an<2 
esteem of all men." 

" Atticus never sueceded better, in gaining universal love and esteem.'* 

Tautology, on some solemn occasions, is, however, elegant, when used 
figuratively : as, " He lifted up his voice and wept." " He opened hi* 
mouth, and said." 

But, in familiar discourse, it should never appear* 

3. Attend particularly to the use of copulatives and relatives, ami such 
words^ as arc employed for Uie transition of the sense. 

These little words, but, and, or, ivho, which, fyc. are often the most Im- 
portant, of any in the sentence. Their use is so various, thai no certain 
rules, respecting them, can be given. We will however, notice some gen- 
eral principles, on which their use depends. 

What is called splitting particles, or separating a preposition from the 
noun it governs, should be avoided : as, " Though virtue borrows no assist- 
ance from, yet it may often be accompanied by the advantages of fortune. 5 ' 
Scarcely an instance, in language, can be found, where this fault may not 
be avoided, and the sense, at the same time left equally clear. ^ Though 
virtue borrows no assistance from fortune; jet she may often be accompanied 
by its advantages." 

As to the use of relatives, in familiar discourse, where €ae omission of 
them does not obscure the sense, it is well to omit them ; as, "The man, f 
love." The friend, I called to see." But in solemn and dignified styie, 
they should not be omitted : as, " Thou art God, who made the heavens, 
and the earth." " The Lord, whom we serve. " 

As to the use of Conjunctions. The same rule holds, as in the use of 
relatives. " The Academy set up, by Cardinal Richelieu, to amuse the wita 
of that age, and country, and divert them from raking into his polities and 
ministry, brought this into vogue; and the French wits have, for this last 
age, been wnolly turned to the refinement of their style &n& language, and y 
/•-/:'/, whk such success, that it can hardly be equalled, mid runs through 
ineir verse and prose." By omitting the words in Italic, the language is 
much more elegant. 

So where a quick and rapid succession of ideas is required 3 the copulatives 
should be omitted : as, " I came, I saw, I conquered/' 

But when every member requires particular attention, the conjunction 
should be used; as, "But of that day and of that hour, knoweth no man." 
*'I am persuaded that neither death, nor life ? nor angels, nor principalities^ 
nor things present, nor things to come, nor height, nor depth, nor any othes 
creature, shall be able to separate us from the love of God." 

As to words ef transition. Such, as have a relative sense, should 
never be used without an antecedent. " By greatness, I do not ineam the 
feulk of a single object only, but the largeness of the whole view. u Svxh 
are the prospects of an open campaign country,, a vast, uncultivated desert." 
Such always means a likeness in nature or quality, and here has no ante- 
cedent: and is therefore improper. Greatness is here spoken of^ .in the 
abstract*, a term of strict similitude should, therefore have been used : as, 
of this kind, -fyc. 

We will close this article, by making two remarks, on the use of eon- 
junctions. 1. The illatives, casuals, and disjunctives can rarely be omitted, 
when they suit the sense; for their use is to separate the terms. %, The 
copulatives are best omitted, when the connexion is very -close, or very 
distant. In the intermediate cases, their use is mostly necessary. 

4. So place the capital words, that they may make the greatest impression: 

We have sufficiently noticed this subject, as it respects single words, an- 
4er the article of clearness of sentences. We shall 3 therfeore, only netic« 



172 APPENDIX 

here what is called the natural and inverted style. The natural style pos- 
sesses nature, ease, and simplicity. It is used to the best advantage where 
*he subject of discourse, in its natural state, possesses all the dignity, of 
rvhich it is capable: as, " God said, let light be : and light was.*' So when 
the subject is perfectly familiar; as, "Oar sight is the most perfect and 
most delightful of all our senses. It fills the mind with the largest variety 
of ideas ; converses with its objects at the greatest distance ; and continues 
longest in action, unfatigued and unsatisfied with its proper enjoyments. 
The sense of feeling can indeed, give us a notion of extension, shape, and 
all other ideas, which enter at the eye except colours; but, at the same 
time, it is very much straightened and confined in its operations." 

The transposed style possesses variety, strength, and dignity. It is prin- 
cipally used for two purposes. 1. When we wish to arrest the attention, 
at the opening of the sentence: as, "Silver and gold have I none; but 
such, as I have, give I unto thee. "Your fathers, where are they? and the 
prophets, do they live forever, ? " 2. When we wish to make the main im- 
pression at the close, we place the principal word, or member there : as, 
44 On whatever side we contemplate this ancient writer, what principally 
strikes us is his wonderful invention." 3. Transposition has another use, 
which is not to be disregarded : the elegance of expression, and the har- 
mony of sound. This grace of style, where the transposition principally 
regards the musical arrangement of words, exists only to advantage, where 
the subject has a natural variety of matter : as, u This, as to the completely 
immoral state, is what, of their own accord, men readily remark. Where 
this absolute degeneracy is, this total apostasy from all candor, truth, or 
equity, few are, who do not see and acknowledge the misery, which is con- 
sequent. Seldom is the case misconstrued, when at the worst. The mis- 
fortune is, that we look not on this depravity, nor consider how it stands, 
in less degrees. As if, to be absolutely immoral, were indeed, the greatest 
misery ; but to be so, in a little degree, is no misery nor harm at all. Which, 
to allow, is just as reasonable, as to own, that it is the greatest ill of the 
body, to be, in the utmost manner, maimed and distorted ; but to locic this 
use of one limb, only, or to be impaired in some single organ, or member, 
is no ill, worth the least notice." Though the transposition of this sentence 
is great,xjt adds a fine harmony to the words, and the sense is not obscured 
in a single instance. 

5. The weaker assertion, or proposition, should precede the stronger, and 

the shorter member, the longer. 

"When our passions have forsaken us, we flatter ourselves with a belief 
that we have forsaken them." This sentence would not be so elegant 
clear, rwor expressive, were the order of the members reversed. 

Nothing gives us more pleasure, than to find the matter of a sentence 
rising upon us, and growing in importance, to the last word. The following 
is a fine sample of this kind of writing. " If we rise yet higher, and con- 
sider the fixed stars as so many oceans of flame, that are each attended with 
a different set of planets; and still discover new firmaments and new lights, 
that are sunk farther in the unfathomable depths of ether ; we are lost in 
a labyrinth of suns and worlds, and confounded with the magnificence and 
immensity of nature." 

6. Never conclude, icith an unmeaning word, nor tcith a circumstance. 

A sentence never should close with a preposition. Heard of, seen to, 
keard from, done with, &c. are alwaj^s bad conclusions : as, "Avarice is a 
crime, wise men are guilty of, of which wise men are guilty. The reason 
why a particle at the end of a sentence, is both inelegant and unnatural is 
that the mind naturally expects to find some material part of the idea, or 
transaction, at the close of tjie sentence. Tf, therefore, it is compelled to 



APPENDIX. 173 

bestow its whole attention, on a thing, which, in itself, is nothing, it feels 
pain and disgust. 

Of all single words at the end of a sentence, none can be found, which 
expresses an idea, so inelegantly, as it, unless, when, from some circumstance, 
it becomes peculiarly emphatical. It should also be avoided, in the begin- 
ning of sentences, if possible. And, to avoid this word, every possible 
manner of formation and arrangement, should be sought. " It is very com- 
mon to describe a whole subject, by some remarkable part of it" In thi* 
sentence, two its hold the two conspicuous and important places. How 
much better thus : A whole subject is often described, by some remarkable part. 

It, in most, cases, where it opens, or closes a sentence, except when at- 
tached to a third personal verb, may, and should be avoided. 

When it is really emphatical, which rarely happens,, it then closes a sen- 
tence very well : as, " The Lord is not a man that he should lie : neither 
the son of man, that he should repent. Hath he not said it? and shall he 
not do it? Hath he spoken it ? and shall he not perform itf" "O thou 
sword of the Lord, how long will it be ere thou be quiet? Upput thyself 
into thy scabbard; rest and be still ! How can it he quiet, seeing the Lord 
hath given it a charge against Askelon, and against the seashore ? There 
hath he appointed it." 

Nothing appears so really awkward, unnatural and "unpleasant, at the end 
of a sentence, as a circumstance. And the reason is, because it obliges the 
reader to go back into the sentence, to see where it belongs : as, " Let me 
therefore, conclude, by repeating, that division has caused all the mischief 
we lament; which union alone can retrieve ; and that a great advance, to- 
wards this union, was the coalition of parties; so happily begun; so suc- 
cessfully carried on, and, of late, so unaccountably neglected ; to say no 
worse.'' Here the reader is obliged again to go all through the sentence 
to see where this circumstance, to smj no ivorse, belongs. After being put 
to all this trouble he finds its proper place in the last member of the sen- 
tence, which should xead thus : and to say no icorse, of late, so unaccounta- 
bly neglected. 

7. When things are compared, in the different members, ichick resemble 
each other; or are contrasted, ichich do not resemble each other, the 
language should correspond io the subject. 

That is, where the objects are similar, the words should be similar; where 
the objects are dissimilar, the words should be dissimilar. 

"The w T ise man is happy, when he gains his own approbation ; the fool, 
when he gains the applause of others." U A friend exaggerates a man's 
virtues: an enemy inflames his crimes." Better thus; "A friend exag- 
gerates a man's virtues; an enemy, his crimes." 

The above consist of contrast. The fallowing comparison of Homer and 
Virgil, by Mr Pope, is really elegant. "Homer was the greater genius; 
Virgil the better artist. In the one, we admire the man ; in the other, the 
work. Homer hurries us, with a commanding impetuosity : Virgil leads us, 
with an attractive majesty. Homer scatters, with a generous profusion-, 
Virgil bestows, with a careful magnificence. Homer, like the Nile, pours 
outnis riches, with a sudden overflow ; Virgil, like a river, in its banks, 
with a constant stream." 

8. Attend to the harmony and melody of the zcords and members of a 

sentence- 

Those parts of this subject, relating to words and their arrangment into 
sentences, has been considered under § 1, and art. 4, § 3, this chapter. 

It only remains, therefore, to make a few remarks relevant to the choice 
of words. 

We have before remarked, that plain sense is the first object, in the use 



174 - APPENDIX. 

of words; and that their sound is altogether a secondary consideration. 
For we attain no one end, by making agreeable sounds, if we convey no 
ideas. 

The same rule holds good, as to the choice of words. For we should 
first consider what words have the clearest and test signification, and most 
correspond with the ideas to which we are about to attach them ; next, their 
ease of utterance and agreeableness of sound. 

Vowel sounds are the softest; next to these, are the sounds of the liquids, 
the greatest strength and harshness of sound, being in the aspirates and 
mutes. So we see, that vowels give softness; consonants, strength to the 
rounds of words. And, as nature, in every thing, dislikes and avoids mo- 
notony, she has taught us to esteem those words the most agreeable, in 
sound, which have the greatest variety of vowel and consonant sounds. 

Words of two or more syllables, are generally more melodious, in sound, 
than monosyllables. Words of more than one syllable, which run not 
wholly either upon long, or short ones, are the most melodious; as, Repent, 
conform, wonderful, impetuosity, salvation, communicate, commendatory, 
activity. 

Therefore, we should avoid, 1, All words, whose several parts unite not 
easily in pronunciation, as, Unsuccessfulness, wrongheadedness , tenderheart- 
edness. 2, Those, whose syllables, which immediately follow the accented 
syllables, crowded with consonants, which unite not easily in sound; 
as, Questionless, chroniclers, conventiclers. 3, Those having too many 
syllables following the accented syllable, as, Primarily, summarily, per- 
emptoriness. 4, Those having too many syllables, in succession, which 
are similar in sound, as, Holily, sillily, lovlily. 

Such words as the following, should always be avoided : heard of, sent 
for, attend to, wondered at, &c, when the preposition has no objective case 
after, it. And a sentence, perhaps, cannot be found, which cannot be so 
phrased, as elegantly to omit the word, change it for another, or bring an 
objective after. 

14 The advantages, that might result to the science of the law itself, when 
a little more attended to, in these seats of knowledge, perhaps, would be 
very considerable." Better thus : from a letter attention to it, in tho&e seats 
of knowledge, fyc. 

" How, little, therefore, it is to be wondered at, that we hear of so fre- 
quent miscarriages." Better thus : " How little, therefore, is the wonder, 
that we so frequently hear of miscarriages." So, made use of, is always 
better expressed by used or made. 

I insert this article, principally to remark, that this is an error in practice, 
not a fault in the w T ords. For, all polysyllable words, having the accent on 
the first or second syllable, should have a half accent on the last syllable, 
or last but one, which at once cures all this difficulty, unless the words are, 
in themselves, uncouth; in which case, this word should be changed for a 
better. 

Trisyllable words, having the accent on the first syllable, should have a 
half accent on the third, also, which will entirely remedy this evil.' 

In arranging the words, after they are properly chosen, the following 
rule should be observed, as strictly as possible : 

If the preceding wprd ends with a vowel, let the following one begin 
with a consonant : # if the preceding word ends with a semivowel; let the 
following word begin with a mute, or a vowel; and vice versa. 

As, "A true friend, a cruelenemy." "A lovely offspring." " A pure 
design." .'* A calm retreat." A happy union. 

*But when the following word necessarily begins with a vowel, it should 
not be the same, which ends the preceding word. 

Every one, who attends strictly to this rule 5 and compares sentences, 



APPENDIX. 175 

which have a good harmony, with those, that are uncouth, wiil find that 
they conform to this rule, or violate its principles. 

1 would remark further, that the last syllable of the preceding word, and 
ihe first syllable of the following, should not be the same, nor so near alike, 
as to have a kind of rhyming sound: as, "She behaves with a uniform for- 
mality." "This is a convenient contrivance." Varied: "She behave* 
with a constant formality." Neither is it elegant to have the last syllables 
of two words, which come together, the same: as, "He is an indulgent 
parent." Varied: "He is an indulging parent." 

We will now quote a sentence, which conforms very well to the above 
rule. < 

" We shall conduct you to a hillside, laborious indeed, at the first ascent ; 
but else so smooth, so green, so full of goodly prospects, and melodious 
sounds, that the harp of Orpheus was not more charming." 

§ 4, OF CONFIGURATION. 

Configuration is the judicious use cf the figures of speech. 

This, when properly managed, is the greatest ornament, of which lan- 
guage is capable. 

The ingenious student may ask the reason and necessity of usiug the 
figures, as we have appropriate terms for all sensible objects? The answer 
is, That all nature is full of an indefinable variety of properties and quali- 
ties, and every thing, which we can name, has, more, or less, an analogy to 
something else. For as sve are compelled to use it, more, or less, in its 
simplest form, in our common discourse, the dictates of nature have taught 
us to use it, in a bolder manner to exalt and dignify our ideas. The use of 
configuration is so very striking and natural, that we derive more pleasure 
from the imagery, than from the story. We should hardly expect to find 
any figurative sense, in the following simple sentences: I walk, I run, I 
talk % I sit, fyc, but here the actions have reference to motion, performed in 
a particular manner; and I sit, alludes to life, without any external animal 
motion. So when we say, " A good man enjoys comfort, in adversity," we 
express the circumstances of the person in the simplest manner. But still 
we allude to the tranquility of his mind, and his fortitude, in bearing mis- 
fortune. But to say, " To the upright ariseth light, in darkness," makes 
the expression figurative, in a high sense; for we -put upright, for good man; 
light, for comfort; and darkness, for adversity. 

We derive two principal advantages from the use of configuration. 

1. It enriches language and renders it more copious. 2. It gives us a 
clearer and livelier idea of the principal object, than we could have from 
simple expressions, and the use of simple terms. 

In order, therefore, that we may the better understand it, we will divide 
it into the following heads: viz. Metaphor, Allegory, Comparison, Metony- 
my, Synchope, Fersonification, Apostrophe, Antithesis, Interrogation, Ex- 
clamation, and Amplification. And, 

I. Metaphor is founded entirely on the resemblance, which one thing 
bears to another. It differs from simile, or comparison, in this one thing 
only : in a simile the analogy of the parts is expressed, in a metaphor, un- 
derstood. When I say of a minister, of state, "That he upholds the state, 
like a pillar, which supports the weight of a whole edifice," I make a com- 
parison. But when I say, w He is the pillar of the state," it then becomes 
a metaphor. 

We have another way of using metaphor to very fine advantage, called 
Irony. When we wish to represent a thing as perfectly ridiculous, or 
wrong, we suppose it to be like something else, which is perfectly dissimi- 
lar: as, When we call an ugly boy, a fine fellow; a thief, honest, $-c. It 
was, perhaps, never better used, than in the case of the woman, taken in 
adultery ; Let Mm who is without sin, among you, cast the first stone. 



176 APPENDIX. 

A single stroke of irony will often succeed, where a labored argument, 
founded°on ever so just principles, would have no effect. It is the only 
way, in which, with any success, we can attack prejudice, error and super^ 
stition. 

In using metaphors, the following rules should be observed. 

1. They should not be used profusely; and when used should accord 
with the sentiment of the language. 

2. The images should be perfectly similar, that the idea,- may be clear 
and perspicuous, 

3. Metaphorical and plain language should not be united. 

4. We should never apply two metaphors to the same thing; nor make 
two metaphors from the same images. 

5. The metaphor should be pursued no farther, than fully to express the 
idea. 

II. Mlegory is metaphor variegated and continued. We cannot better 
explain it, than by giving a quotation, from the 80th Psalm, which is a very 
perfect example ; u Thou hast brought a vine out of Egypt, thou hast cast 
out the heathen, and planted it. Thou preparest the room before it and 
causedst it to take deep root, and it filled the land. The hills were covered 
with the shadow of it, and the boughs thereof were as the goodly cedars. 
She sent out her boughs unto the sea, and her branches unto the river. 
Why hast thou broken down her hedges, so that all they that pass by the 
way do pluck her? The boar out of the woods doth waste her, and the wild 
beast of the field doth devour her. Return, we beseech thee, O God of 
hosts, look down from heaven, and behold, and visit this vine ; and the 
vineyard, which thy right hand hath planted, and the branch thou madest 
strong for thyself" 

The main thing to be regarded, in the management of an allegory, is, 
that the figurative and literal meaning be not inconsistently mixed. All 
the rules which were given, for metaphors, may also be applied to a!legor}\ 

The only difference, between them, (besides the one being short and the 
other long) is, that a metaphor always explains itself, by the. words, which 
are connected with it, in their proper and natural meaning; but an allegory 
does not : as, when we say., " Achilles was a lion ; " the lion is sufficiently 
explained by Achilles. This is the same, as fable, or parable. 

III. Metonymy is the putting one name, or thing, for another : as, cause, 
for effect; the subject, for the adjunct, and the contrary. To say, he reads 
Virgil, is putting the cause for the effect : meaning VirgiVs ivritings. So 
when we say, grey hairs should be respected, we put the effect for the 
cause : meaning old age : or the bench, for the court, &c. 

IV. Synchope is the putting ,the whole for a part; a genus, for a spe- 
cies, and the contrary ; as, " A fleet of twenty sail," for twenty ships. "He 
lost his head," for his life. " The mighty waters, or waves," for the sea. 
So when one quality is changed for another ; as, young, for youth : or 
youth, for young. So when a quality of a thing is used for the thing itself: 
as,, the deep., for the sea. 

V. Personification is the attributing life and reason to inanimate things; 
or causing them to speak and act, as though they were rational creatures; 
as, when we say, u The ground thirsts for rain," or, "the earth smiles with 
plenty," or, "ambition is restless." "When Israel went out of Egypt; 
the house of Judah, from a people of strange language : the sea saw it, and 
fled: Jordan was driven back. The mountains skipped like rams, and the 
little hills, like lambs. What aileth thee, O thou sea ! that thou fleddest? 
Thou Jordan, that thou wast driven back ? Ye mountains, that ye skipped 
like rams; and ye little hills, like lambs. Tremble thou earth, at the pres- 
ence of the Lord." 

VI. Apostrophe is a turning off, from the regular course of the subject 



APPENDIX. 177 

to address some person or thing : as, " Death is swallowed up, in victory. 
O Death ! where is thy sting? O grave ! where is thy victory? The sting 
of death is sin ; the strength of sin is the law." 

When the address is to any person, the apostrophe is then pure ; when to 
any inanimate thing, it differs nothing from personification, except simply 
in breaking off, from the regular discourse, and returning to the discourse 
again, 

VII. Antithesis, or contrast, is the placing of two things together, which 
tare perfectly dissimilar, that the excellency of the one may appear^ by the 
deformity of the other ; and the reverse : as, White for instance, never ap- 
pears so pure, as when opposed to black ; virtue, never so lovely, as when 
opposed to vice ; nor integrity so worthy, as when opposed to fraud. 

An orator, in defence of his friend, who was accused of murder, gives us 
a fine example of argumentative antithesis : " Can }'ou believe, that the 
person, whom he scrupled to slay, when he might have done so, with full 
justice, in a convenient place, at a proper time, with secure impunity ; he 
made no scruple to murder, against justice, in an unfavorable place, at an 
unfavorable time, and at the risk of capital condemnation." 

"Though deep, yet clear; though gentle, yet not dull; 
Strong, without rage ; without o'erflowing, full." 

11 Would you enrich a person ? increase not his stores ; but diminish his 
desires." 

VIII. Interrogation is the affirmation of anything, by way of a question, 
which the speaker takes to be so clear, that he is willing to rest it upon the 
conviction of the person addressed : as, The Lord is not a man, that he 
should lie; neither the son of man, that he should repent. Hath ne-said 
it? and shall he not do it? Hath he spoken it? and shall he not perform 
it?" 

This use of the interrogation is quite different, from the commonplace 
manner of using it, in asking questions. 

IX. Exclamation is the effect of some sudden, cr strong emotion of the 
mind: as, joy, grief, surprise, sorrow, &c. 

" Woe is me, that I sojourn, in Mesech, that I dwell in the tents of 
Kedar!" 

11 Oh, that my head were waters, and my eyes, a fountain of tears, that I 
might weep day and night, for the slain of the daughters of my people ! 
Oh, that I had, in the wilderness, a lodging place of wayfaring men ! " 

This figurative use of the exclamation is quite different from its common 
and familiar use. 

X. Amplification, or Climax, is a passing from one thing to another : or 
it is the setting of great and important subjects, in their strongest light,by 
beginning with the least circumstance, and proceeding, from one to another, 
in a regular progression, closing the whole, with the most important cir- 
cumstance. 

We will close this subject with a single example. " If one man had any 
how slain another; if an adversary had killed his opposer, or a woman oc- 
casioned the death of her enemy; even these crimes w^ould have been pun- 
ished capitally, by the Cornelian law : but if this guiltless infant, which 
could make no enemy, had been murdered by its own nurse, what punish- 
ments, then, would not the mother have demanded? With what cries and 
exclamations would she not have stunned your ears ? What shall we say 
then, when a woman guilty of homicide, a mother, of the murder of her 
innocent child, hath comprised all these misdeeds, in one single crime; a 
crime, in its own nature detestable ; in a woman prodigious ; in a mother, 
incredible ; and perpetrated againt one, whose tender age called for com- 
passion, whose near relation claimed affection, and whose innocence de* 
served the highest favor." 



ERRATA. 

In article 6, page 24, for the, read he. 

In rule 1, page 24, for forming plurals, for ro, read to. 

In art. 3, page 25, for vis, read ves. 

In line 26, page 32, for adquia, read adverb. 

In line 15, page 36, for distributive read distributives. 

In page 44, art. 1, for composed, read compared. 

In page 67, under can, for kin, read ken. 

In page 69, iimni. mood, for present tense, read perfect tense to have been. 

In page 71, Plu. per. tense, for I have been loved, read I had been loved. 

In page 72, 2d indefinite plural, for ye or you can have been loved, read ye 
or you could have been loved. And 3d person sing. Adored be he. PL adored 
he they are out of place and should have been in the imp. mood, 3d person 
singular. Loved be he : PI. loved be they. 

In page 82, for Rs. 133, 49, read 33, 49. 

In page 87, under thru\ for danra, read daura. 

In page 88, in 8th line from bottom for connt, read count 

In page 107, ob. 13, for hers, read his. 

In page 116, ob.13, for opposition, read apposition. 

In page 122, ob. 7, but should be stricken out; but is the object of the 
verb. 

In page 126, ob. 17, for miout, read minute. 

In page 129, Rule '54, for im, read in. 

In page 145, Rule 20, for faithfuf, read faithful. 

In page 148, Chap. 3, for ively, read lively ; for haste, read chaste } for 
noderate^ read moderate ; for cholar, read scholar t for ng, read ing. 



RECOMMENDATIONS. 



Portland, Aug. 1, 1842. 

I have at the request of Mr. Morgan, examined his Grammar of the 
English Language, and it is but simple justice to say that his views are 
sustained by as high authorities as Johnson, Horn Tooke and Webster. 
Of those and other distinguished Grammarians he has availed himself, so 
far as to corroborate his own views, which are somewhat original, and, by 
no means, destitute of principles drawn from the true Philosophy of Lan- 
guage. His Grammar is the result of great labor and long continued and 
diligent research. It will be esteemed no slight recommendation that the 
innovations are not numerous — and that it will not, in the opinion of the 
subscriber, suffer on comparison with a majority of similar works which 
have appeared within the few years past. B. CUSHMAN, 

Late of Portland Academv. 



Portland, Jan. 27, 1843. 

J. Morgan, Esq.: My Dear Sir — You were kind enough to submit for 
my inspection, a Grammar in manuscript, which you have prepared for the 
press; and you ask my opinion of the work. The examination which I 
have given it, has satisfied me, that it has many things which are new — 
many things which are good. Respectfully yours, 

J. PRATT, Pastor of St. Steven's Church, Portland. 



Portland, Aug. 23, 1842. 

Dear Sir : — I examined your work on English Grammar last winter, and 
regret that my memory does not permit me to speak concerning it with any 
degree of exactness. But I remember that some departments of the sub- 
ject were treated in an original manner; the division of the tenses I wae 
particularly well pleased with. I should think that with some additions 
and emendations which you propose making, it would be a valuable acqui- 
sition to those who are interested in the subject. Very Respectfully, &c. 
D. GREENE HASKINS, Preceptor Port. Academy. 

Jonathan Morgan, Es$, Portland. 



Portland, March 3, 1843, 

1 have examined, with some attention, a Grammar prepared by Jonathan 
Morgan, Esq., of the English language. 

There are many things in it, evincing an ingenious observation of the 
elements and structure of the language, and some things, I have no doubt, 
are not only novel, but true, and if generally adopted, by grammarians, 
might be useful. 

I am not fond of innovations, and cannot undertake to say, how wise it 
might be to attempt the general introduction of Mr. Morgan's views with 



m RECOMMENDATIONS. 

our systems of teaching &c; but he certainly deserves credit, in his 
r a3 u y re, Tr his ingenious and labored efforts to«mgjMje <*« of 
onr common tongue. Professor at Waterville College. 



i 

Gorham, April 1841. 
v» . T feel rimeh obliged to you for sending me the manuscript of your 

„„.t >houW b. S'"".^"^™ *^HS Ut. »f Go,h.m Academy. 






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